Sociocultural Factors in Relationship Formation

• Definition of Culture

  • Culture encompasses attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group and passed down through generations.

  • Shiraev and Levy (2004) define culture as a set of beliefs, values, superstitions, stereotypes, norms, customs, traditions, and fashions.

• Sociocultural Events Influence Relationships:

  • Sociocultural events shape individuals' preferences in forming relationships.

  • Cultural dynamics impact who individuals are inclined to build connections with.

• Components of Culture:

  • Attitudes:

    • Beliefs, encompassing political, religious, and moral perspectives.

    • Values that guide individuals' priorities and principles.

    • Superstitions and stereotypes influence perceptions.

  • Behaviors:

    • Norms dictate acceptable actions within a society.

    • Customs and traditions shape social interactions.

    • Fashions influence lifestyle choices and preferences.

• Impact on Perception of Romantic Love:

  • Cultural norms and values influence how romantic love is perceived.

  • Defines societal expectations regarding the intensity and expression of romantic feelings.

• Criteria for Attraction:

  • Cultural norms dictate what qualities are deemed attractive in a potential partner.

  • Influences preferences related to physical appearance, social status, and educational background.

• Guidance on Relationship Initiation:

  • Cultural norms guide when individuals are expected to initiate romantic relationships.

  • Societal expectations regarding the appropriate timing for entering into romantic relations.

• Role in Partner Selection:

  • Cultural values impact the characteristics considered desirable in a partner.

  • Shapes individuals' criteria for selecting a mate, including factors like personality, values, and social status.

• Arranged Marriages and Cultural Influence:

  • Some cultures practice arranged marriages, emphasizing the role of societal expectations in relationship formation.

  • Reflects the influence of cultural norms on familial involvement in selecting partners.

• Gender Roles and Relationship Dynamics:

  • Cultural expectations regarding gender roles impact power dynamics and division of labor within relationships.

  • Societal attitudes toward evolving gender roles can influence the nature of relationships.

• Cultural Diversity in Relationships:

  • Sociocultural factors are crucial in intercultural relationships.

  • Managing cultural differences becomes a central aspect of relationship formation.

Cultural Variability in Attraction and Relationship Formation

• Cross-Cultural Differences in Attractiveness:

  • Cunningham et al. (1995) observed cultural variations in the perception of attractive bodies.

  • Example: African American men found larger women more attractive than white men, highlighting cultural specificity in beauty standards.

• Cross-Cultural Variances in Female Physical Attributes:

  • Swami et al. (2006) compared UK and Japanese perceptions of an attractive female body.

  • Findings: Japanese preferences differed significantly, emphasizing lower body mass indexes (BMI) and specific body shapes compared to Britons.

• BMI as a Universal Determinant:

  • Swami and Tovee (2005) found BMI as the primary determinant of female physical attractiveness in both the UK and Malaysia.

  • Cultural Variation: Attractiveness preferences varied along a socioeconomic gradient, with urban participants favoring lower BMIs compared to rural counterparts.

• Buss's Cross-Cultural Study on Relationship Formation:

  • Buss (1994) investigated factors in relationship formation across 37 cultures.

  • Universals: Men prefer younger mates, and women prefer older mates.

  • Cultural Differences: Varied importance placed on characteristics; e.g., virginity is highly valued in China, Taiwan, India, and Iran, but less so in Finland, Denmark, Sweden, France, and Germany.

• Impact of Rural vs. Urban Contexts:

  • The importance of love in relationship formation may vary with the level of urbanization and survival pressures.

  • Lindholm's suggestion: In more rural communities where survival is a primary concern, love may be less important compared to other factors.

• Globalization and Changing Cultural Constructs:

  • The spread of Western approaches to relationships worldwide is noted, possibly influenced by globalization.

  • Romantic love, while not universal, is becoming more widespread as cultures adopt aspects of Western relationship ideals.

Cultural Perspectives and Arranged Marriages

• Passionate Love as Culturally Specific:

  • Goodwin (1995) argues that the notion of passionate love as a primary reason for forming serious relationships is culturally specific, particularly to Western cultures.

  • In more traditional societies, the emphasis is on loving the person one marries rather than marrying for passionate love.

• Arranged Marriages as Sociocultural Norms:

  • In several cultures, arranged marriages are common, challenging the Western emphasis on passionate love as a basis for marriage.

  • Parents often play a central role in the decision-making process, sometimes presenting a range of potential partners for their child.

• Lack of Individual Choice in Arranged Marriages:

  • In some cases of arranged marriages, the individuals involved may have little or no say in choosing their partners or deciding on the marriage.

  • The decision-making power often lies with parents or other family members.

• Factors Contributing to Arranged Marriage Success:

  • In arranged marriages, the involvement of a third party (e.g., parents) is considered a factor contributing to their success.

  • Intellectual elements, along with emotional factors, play a role in decision-making.

Social Cues: Influences on Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior

• Definition of Social Cues:

  • Social cues are visual or non-verbal characteristics in an environment that influence people's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

• Examples of Social Cues:

  • Body Language:

    • Gestures, postures, and movements that convey information without verbal communication.

    • Example: A person crossing their arms may indicate defensiveness or resistance.

  • Facial Expressions:

    • Emotional expressions are conveyed through changes in facial muscles.

    • Example: A smile indicates happiness or approval, while a frown may convey disapproval or sadness.

Biological Approach to Relationship Formation: Evolutionary Perspective

Assumptions:

• Biological Influence on Relationship Formation:

  • Assumes that biological events significantly influence individuals' preferences in forming relationships.

• Survival Purpose of Heterosexual Relationships:

  • Explains that heterosexual relationships serve a survival purpose by facilitating the transmission of the best possible genetic combinations to offspring.

Evolutionary Arguments for Heterosexuality:

• Attraction as an Adaptive Function:

  • Attraction is viewed as a product of evolution, serving as an adaptive function for the survival and reproduction of the species.

• Gender-Specific Preferences:

  • Males:

    • Generally prefer younger women.

    • Pay attention to physical details like teeth, lip color, hair length and shine, hip size, and skin smoothness—characteristics representing the ability to produce offspring.

  • Females:

    • Generally prefer older men.

    • Pay attention to characteristics like ambition, wealth, intelligence, social status, energy levels, and good health—traits associated with the ability to provide for offspring.

Genetic Point of View:

• Attraction, according to this perspective, has evolved as a genetically encoded trait.

Similarities and Differences:

• Similarities:

  • Both genders pay attention to the appearance of a potential mate.

  • Both sexes value traits like 'kindness' and 'intelligence.'

• Differences:

  • Males and females exhibit gender-specific preferences based on evolutionary needs for reproductive success.

Empirical Support:

• The gender differences in attraction are supported by large-scale cross-cultural surveys, such as those conducted by Buss (1994, 1995).

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Genes in Relationship Formation

Assumption:

• The attraction between individuals is influenced by the combination of their genes, to produce healthy offspring.

Evidence for Assumption:

• Attraction to pheromones carried in sweat, containing information about a person's immune system.

• Assumption: Genetically different immune systems complement each other, potentially resulting in offspring with a robust immune system.

Role of MHC Genes:

• Control of Immunological Self on-Self Discrimination:

  • MHC genes control immunological self-self discrimination, tissue rejection, and immune recognition of infectious diseases.

• Importance for Health:

  • MHC genes play a crucial role in ensuring individuals stay healthy by regulating immune responses.

Sexual Selection and MHC Genes:

• Avoiding Inbreeding:

  • MHC genes are assumed to be the product of sexual selection, aiming to improve the immune system of offspring and prevent inbreeding.

Studies on Mice:

• Studies in house mice suggest that both males and females prefer mates with MHC-dissimilar genes, recognized through odor cues.

Studies in Humans:

• Human studies, including those by Wedekind and Penn (2000), found associations between MHC-associated odors and mating preferences.

Cognitive Health Connection:

• Facial symmetry is linked to greater cognitive health, with symmetry indicating the reliability and precision of developmental processes (Penke et al., 2009).

• Supports the bodily integrity hypothesis, suggesting a correlation between scoring well on cognitive ability tests and a general tendency for overall body systems to be efficient and healthy (Deary, 2012).

Associations with Physical Health:

• Facial symmetry is not only an indicator of cognitive health but is also associated with better physical health.

• The bodily cues provided by facial symmetry may offer insights into both cognitive and physical well-being.

The Golden Ratio:

• Facial symmetry has been suggested to be linked with the mathematical concept of the 'golden ratio.'

• The golden ratio refers to pleasing and harmonious proportions that adhere to a specific mathematical equation.

The complexity of Achieving Symmetry:

• Achieving facial symmetry is a complex task during human growth, involving billions of cell reproductions while maintaining a parallel structure.

• Facial symmetry is considered a visible signal of genetic health, as it reflects successful and precise developmental processes.

Biological Origins and Cross-Cultural Consistency:

• Perceiving facial symmetry has a clear cognitive element and is cross-cultural, suggesting biological origins.

• The universality of appreciating facial symmetry across cultures indicates a shared, biologically rooted perception.

Limitations:

• While facial symmetry is considered an indicator of attractiveness, there are cross-cultural differences in beauty standards.

• Cultural factors can influence what is perceived as beautiful, emphasizing the interplay between biological and cultural influences.

Ovulation and Its Influence on Attractiveness: Research Insights

Impact of Ovulation on Women's Attractiveness:

• Ovulation is believed to influence women's preferences in men and their physical appearance, impacting their attractiveness to prospective partners.

Concealed Ovulation in Humans:

• Unlike some other mammals, human females conceal ovulation, giving them more control over reproduction.

• Concealing ovulation allows females to have more control and potentially cheat on mates without being detected during ovulation.

The role of cognitive factors in the formation of relationships

Halo Effect:

• Definition:

  • The false correlation of positive characteristics, assuming that someone with a few positive traits possesses many positive characteristics.

• Association with Physical Attractiveness:

  • The halo effect is sometimes linked to physical attractiveness, where people may assume that physically attractive individuals possess other positive traits.

The Role of Listening in Relationship Satisfaction: Insights from Ahmad and Reid (2008)

• Research Context:

  • Ahmad and Reid (2008) explored the connection between traditional roles, communication styles, and marital satisfaction.

  • Focused on South Asian couples in Canada, particularly those with traditional beliefs in marriage.

• Methodology:

  • Married individuals of South Asian descent participated.

  • Only one partner per couple completed the questionnaire.

• Questionnaire Content:

  • Explored attitudes toward marriage.

  • Examined communication styles within the marriage.

  • Assessed marital satisfaction.

• Key Findings:

  • Traditional role beliefs did not necessarily lead to lower satisfaction.

  • The critical factor was the listening style in the relationship.

• Listening Style and Satisfaction:

  • Couples with traditional beliefs but effective listening were more likely to be satisfied.

  • Emphasizes the importance of actively listening to understand a partner's feelings.

• Insights from Arranged Marriages:

  • Arranged marriages with traditional beliefs can be satisfying.

  • Listening plays a pivotal role in producing satisfaction despite having fewer choices in partners.

• Implications:

  • Communication, specifically active listening, may play a more significant role in relationship satisfaction than cultural factors influencing marriage.

Why do relationships change or end

Attribution Changes in Relationships: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

• Explanation of Behavior: Attribution involves explaining the behavior of others in our environment.

• Emotional Influence: Attributions can be influenced by our emotional connection and feelings toward the person.

Perceptions of Benefits and Rewards in Relationships: Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory (SET):

• Basic Assumption: Relationships are maintained through continuous cost-benefit analysis.

• Balance Requirement: Balance between partners' investments and returns is crucial for relationship stability.

• Dependence on Perception: SET involves the perception of imbalances and inequality, which is subjective to individual viewpoints.

Student A study Carlson et al. (2014):

• Focus: Analyzed data on housework and sexual frequency from the 2006 Marital and Relationship Survey.

• Participants: 600 married and cohabiting low to moderate-income couples with children.

Findings:

• Equal Housework and Sexual Frequency:

  • Couples sharing routine housework equally reported the highest sexual frequency (7.74 times a month).

  • Higher satisfaction and quality of the sexual relationship in these couples.

Gender Equality and Intimacy:

• Changing Gender Roles: Men participating in housework and childcare are seen as fair.

• Increased Intimacy: Perception of fairness in cost-benefit analysis leads to increased intimacy in Western societies.

Role of Expectations:

• Traditional vs. Non-Traditional Expectations:

  • Traditional marriages may have different expectations regarding roles and contributions.

  • Clear roles in traditional settings may provide a framework for perceived fairness.

Norway Divorce Rates:

• Traditional Roles vs. Gender Equality:

  • Despite Norway's gender equality, couples with more traditional roles had lower divorce rates.

  • Suggests that clarity in roles and expectations aligns with perceived fairness.

Sociocultural Change: Empowerment and Financial Independence of Women

• Sociocultural changes, particularly in the West, have led to increased empowerment and financial independence for women.

• Shifts in cultural norms and economic structures have influenced women's roles in the workforce and relationships.

Empowerment through Workforce Participation:

• Statistical Trends (Office for National Statistics, 2013):

  • The employment rate of women aged 16 to 64 rose from 53% in 1971 to 66% in 2012.

  • Concurrently, there has been a decline in employment for men.

Factors Influencing Sociocultural Change:

• Rise of the Service Sector:

  • Shift from heavy industry to the service sector, favoring opportunities for women.

  • Women actively developing careers in diverse fields.

• Impact on Relationships:

  • Career development requires time and energy, potentially delaying serious or long-term relationships.

  • Pressure on women due to biological time constraints related to fertility.

  • Men, not facing the same fertility decline, may feel less urgency to commit in the early stages of a relationship.

Relationship Dynamics: Early vs. Later Stages:

• Early Stages:

  • Women may feel pressure to manage both careers and the desire to have children.

  • Men may perceive less urgency regarding commitment due to a lack of similar biological time constraints.

• Later Stages:

  • Increased financial independence for women.

  • Accumulation of financial capital, such as shared property ownership.

  • Women are more capable of supporting themselves outside marriage.

Impact on Freedom of Choice:

• Women have more freedom of choice in later relationship stages:

  • Financial independence.

  • Easier and cheaper divorce options.

Less Stigma for Divorce in Western Cultures

• Introduction of No-Fault Divorce:

  • Initiated in some US states in the 1950s.

  • Couples were no longer required to prove fault; citing a broken-down marriage was sufficient.

  • By 1970, most US states adopted laws allowing no-fault divorces.

Impact on Divorce Rates:

• Divorce Rates in the US:

  • 1940-1965: The divorce rate remained near ten divorces for every 1000 married women.

  • 1979: The rate increased to 20 divorces for every 1000 married women.

• Factors Contributing to Increased Divorce Rates:

  • Adoption of no-fault divorce laws.

  • Changing societal attitudes toward divorce.

Changing Societal Influences

• Decline of Religious Influence:

  • Religion's diminished role in influencing relationship decisions.

  • Couples are more likely to seek divorce when facing challenges.

• Legal Relaxations:

  • Legal changes making divorce more accessible.

Impact on Stigma

• Reduced Stigma:

  • No-fault divorce reduces the stigma associated with divorce.

  • Couples can choose divorce without attributing blame to one party.

• Attitude Shifts:

  • Changing societal attitudes towards divorce.

  • Divorce becomes a more acceptable option for couples facing challenges.

Aging and Active Population: Changing Dynamics in Relationships

Increased Life Expectancy

• Health Improvements:

  • Better healthcare and education contribute to longer, healthier lives.

  • The overall increase in life expectancy in Western developed economies.

• Changing Perspectives:

  • People no longer view late middle age as the end of life.

  • A shift towards starting second major relationships in extended life cycles.

Impact on Sexual Health

• STD Rates:

  • As couples end long-term relationships, STD rates among older individuals increase.

  • In the USA (2013), people aged 55 and older accounted for 26% of those living with HIV.

• Medication and Sexual Activity:

  • Introduction of medications for erectile dysfunction for older men.

  • Enables older individuals to engage in sexual activity in later years.

Educational Gaps and Perception

• Lack of Education:

  • Older men tend to be less educated about STD risks.

  • May not be well-informed about safe practices.

• Perceived Low Risk:

  • Older individuals may perceive themselves at low risk for STDs.

  • Contributes to the spread of STDs in this age group.

Group Dynamics

• Inclusive Fitness

  • Definition:

    • The ability of an individual organism to pass on its genes to the next generation.

    • Consider direct descendants and shared genes of close relatives.

  • Explanation:

    • Enhances evolutionary success by promoting the reproduction and survival of genetically similar individuals.

    • Underpins kin selection theory, emphasizing intragroup cooperation as an adaptation.

• Intragroup Cooperation and Kin Selection

  • Behavioral Adaptations:

    • Individuals engage in behaviors benefiting their ingroup, even at personal cost.

    • Motivation to help genetically similar individuals within the group.

    • Kin selection theory suggests intragroup cooperation as an evolutionary adaptation.

• Intergroup Competitiveness

  • Alternative Adaptation:

    • Intergroup competitiveness is considered an adaptation.

    • Non-human primates exhibit sensitivity to social hierarchies and group distinctions.

    • Competitiveness is observed in more primitive species, responding to situational factors.

Examples from Non-Human Primates:

• Primate Behavior:

  • Non-human primates show sensitivity to individual rankings within groups.

    • Recognition of social category fault lines, distinguishing between ingroup and outgroups.

• Primitive Species and Competitiveness:

  • Sensitivity to Situational Factors:

    • Primitive species, such as beetle larvae and cockroaches, exhibit competitiveness.

    • Sensitivity to situational factors, including the number of potential competitors.

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

• Conceptual Framework

  • Developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979).

  • Assumes natural division of social environment into ingroups (us) and outgroups (them or the other).

• Social Categorization:

  • Reduction of Differences:

    • Reduces perceived differences within the ingroup.

    • Reduces perceived differences in the outgroup.

    • Increases perceived differences between the ingroup and outgroup.

• Category Accentuation Effect:

  • Exaggeration of Differences:

    • Exaggeration of ingroup and outgroup differences.

    • Accentuation of intragroup similarities.

• Social Identity Process:

  • Assimilation:

    • Individuals assimilate into their group by adopting the group's identity.

    • Behave in ways consistent with group behavior.

    • The group becomes the person's ingroup.

• Social Comparison:

  • Identification and Comparison:

    • Individuals categorize themselves within a group.

    • Compare their ingroup with another group (outgroup).

    • Positive distinctiveness for self-esteem enhancement.

• Ethnocentrism:

  • Ingroup Bias:

    • Positive behaviors of ingroup attributed to dispositional factors.

    • Negative behaviors of ingroup attributed to situational factors.

    • Positive behaviors of outgroup attributed to situational factors.

    • Negative behaviors of outgroup attributed to dispositional factors.

• Stereotyping:

  • Fixed Images:

    • Fixed and oversimplified images of individuals or groups.

    • Occurs when individuals are perceived as members of an outgroup.

    • Assumes shared characteristics among outgroup members.

• Perceptions of Group Homogeneity:

  • Linked to Social Identity:

    • Stereotypes are influenced by social identity processes.

    • Group homogeneity perceptions apply to both ingroups and outgroups.

• Group Dynamics:

  • Definition:

    • System of behaviors and psychological processes within social ingroups.

    • Study applicable to understanding prosocial behavior, prejudice, discrimination, and violence.

  • Intragroup and Intergroup Dynamics:

    • Ingroups and outgroups are defined through comparisons and contrasts.

Cooperation and Social Identity Theory (SIT)

Cooperation:

• Definition: A prosocial process where individuals work together for mutual benefit.

• Contrast with Competition:

  • Competition: Individuals work toward selfish, non-shareable goals.

  • Cooperation usually occurs within ingroups as an intragroup process.

• Enhancement of Organized Groups:

  • Shared group identity increases cooperative behavior (Brewer, 2008).

  • The viability of organized groups is boosted when members act to enhance group functioning (Tyler & Blader, 2000).

Tyler and Blader's Types of Cooperation Within Ingroups:

• Following Group Rules:

• Conducting Work on Behalf of the Group:

• Intention to Stay Within the Group:

  • Intention has a cognitive nature but also involves social signaling.

  • A lack of clear intention may be interpreted as a lack of motivation to cooperate.

Two Types of Basic Cooperative Behavior:

• Mandatory (Required) Behaviors:

  • Specified for particular roles in a group.

  • Originates from the group or group leader.

• Discretionary (Non-Required) Behaviors:

  • Goes beyond required actions.

  • Originates from a group member, not the group.

SIT's Role in Ingroup Cooperation:

• Individuals cooperate with their group as long as it provides a positive social identity.

• If not, individuals might be tempted to change group membership (Doosje et al., 1999).

• Ongoing cognitive process: Constantly measuring perceived group quality and the extent of being considered a group member.

• The link between group success and maintaining a positive self-identity.

Identification and Ingroup Cooperation:

• Identification Definition: The degree to which people merge their sense of self with the group.

• Higher identification leads to:

  • Greater willingness to act cooperatively.

  • More investment in working toward group success (mandatory and discretionary behavior).

Competitive Behavior and Comparison Concerns:

• Definition of Competition:

  • The presence of socially comparative groups triggers competitive behavior (Festinger, 1954).

  • Social comparison theory suggests individuals are driven to improve their performance and minimize discrepancies with others (Garcia et al., 2013).

• Comparison Concerns:

  • Prime Motivator:

    • Garcia et al. (2013) emphasize that comparison concerns drive competitive behavior.

    • Defined as the desire to achieve or maintain a 'superior relative position.'

    • Note: This notion implies a perception of a superior relative position rather than an absolute one.

• Factors Influencing Comparison Concerns:

  • Relevance of Performance Dimension:

    • Tesser (1988) indicates that competitiveness increases with the relevance of the activity to the individual.

  • Degree of Similarity to the Target:

    • Kilduff et al. (2010) find that competitiveness rises with greater similarity to the rival.

  • Closeness to the Target:

    • Pleban and Tesser (1981) reveal that competitiveness increases with the proximity of the individual to their rival.

Prejudice and discrimination

• Definitions:

  • Prejudice: Unjustified, usually negative thoughts and feelings based on perceived group membership.

  • Discrimination: Negative behavior based on perceived group membership.

• Components and Manifestation:

  • Prejudice has cognitive and affective components, while discrimination is the behavioral expression.

  • Prejudice doesn't always translate into behavior; individuals may hold prejudicial views without acting on them.

• Challenges in Studying:

  • Social desirability bias can impact the self-reporting of prejudicial attitudes.

  • Groups are dynamic, and individuals may identify with multiple groups, complicating research.

• Prejudice Factors:

  • Taylor and Moriarty (1987) found competition and physical distinctiveness amplify ingroup favoritism and outgroup prejudice.

  • The Stereotype Content Model (SCM) identifies warmth and competence as fundamental dimensions in ingroup/outgroup perceptions.

• Discrimination Factors:

  • Discrimination's behavioral nature requires a sociocultural context for manifestation.

  • Etieyibo and Omiegbe (2016) explored cultural and religious contributions to discrimination against people with disabilities in Nigeria.

• Discrimination Forms in Nigeria:

  • Discrimination includes serious human rights abuses, such as burning women accused of witchcraft, raping women with mental illness for perceived wealth, and killing people with albinism for rituals.

• Cultural Influence on Discrimination:

  • Disability is viewed as a cultural construct, and discriminatory practices are rooted in cultural beliefs.

  • People with disabilities are targeted for perceived social, personal, and economic benefits, leading to ritualized killings.

• Religion and Culture Impact:

  • Religion and culture play powerful roles in shaping negative attitudes and discriminatory practices against people with disabilities in Nigeria.

• Global Issue:

  • Discrimination against people with disabilities is not limited to Nigeria; historically, it has been prevalent globally, marked by various oppressive social attitudes.

Understanding Conflict and Resolving Disputes

Introduction:

• Definition: Peace psychology is an academic field focused on understanding and addressing conflicts within groups, aiming to achieve sustainable peace through non-violent methods.

• Scope: Encompasses psychological dynamics, politics, diplomacy, military and economic considerations, and sociocultural, international, and national structures affecting peace.

Biological Perspectives:

• Inclusive fitness and kin selection theory suggest instinctive ingroup favoritism, fostering intergroup competition and intragroup cooperation.

• Sociocultural Dynamics:

  • Social Identity Theory (SIT) by Tajfel emphasizes the natural division of the social environment into ingroups and outgroups.

  • Social categorization reduces perceived differences within ingroups and exaggerates differences between ingroups and outgroups (category accentuation effect).

  • Ethnocentrism, an ingroup-serving bias, can be explained by SIT.

• Cognitive Perspectives:

  • Social Comparison: Individuals enhance self-esteem by positively perceiving their ingroup and negatively perceiving other groups.

  • Taylor and Moriarty (1987) demonstrate how physical distinctiveness along racial lines plays a crucial role in conflict origins.

• Stereotype Content Model (SCM):

  • SCM shows the correlation between perceived status of outgroups, perceived competence, and competition. Outgroups are seen as warm when not competing with ingroups.

• Social Dominance Orientation (SDO):

  • A personality trait where individuals prefer maintaining or increasing group differences, indicating a preference for hierarchies in social systems.

Obstacles to Conflict Resolution

• Identifiable Ingroups and Outgroups: The presence of distinct group identities contributes to conflict.

• Ethnocentricity: Belief in the superiority of the ingroup over the outgroup.

• Dehumanization: Treating the outgroup as less than human.

• Legitimization of Violence: Acceptance of violence towards the outgroup.

• Enemy Images: Promotion of negative perceptions of the outgroup.

• Education System Influence: Presence of educational values promoting power differentials, authoritarianism, and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO).

Approaches to Resolving Conflict

• Recognition of Group Allegiance: Acknowledging that group allegiance can lead to intergroup conflict.

• Understanding Group Identity: Recognizing the power of group identity, often referred to as the 'collective self.'

• Building Peace Structures: Establishing and maintaining structures that promote peace and social responsibility, including physical and cultural aspects.

Social responsibility

Levine et al. (2001) Study:

• Objective: Investigate the rate of helping behavior in different cities globally, considering economic development and cultural factors, including simpatia.

• Methodology: Recorded instances of helping in various situations (e.g., a person pretending to be blind, a person with a leg brace dropping magazines) in major cities from 23 countries.

Findings:

• Inverse Relationship with Economic Development: Countries with lower economic productivity were generally more helpful.

• Role of Simpatia: Countries with a cultural tradition of simpatia were, on average, more helpful than those without.

Ingroup Paradigm and Group Cohesion:

• Explanation: Poorer communities may exhibit higher levels of helping due to increased group cohesion.

• Cohesive Groups: People experience less anxiety and tension in more cohesive groups (Myers, 1962).

• Stress Coping: Belonging to a cohesive group contributes to better stress coping (Zaccaro et al., 1995).

Prosocial behavior

1. Definition and Motivation:

• Prosocial Behavior: Actions that benefit others or have positive social consequences.

• Altruism: Motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare (Batson, 1991).

• Critique: Some argue that all human behavior ultimately seeks personal pleasure, challenging the existence of true altruism.

2. Sociocultural Factors:

• Cultural Influence: Bystanderism studies consider economic development and cultural notions (e.g., simpatia).

• Diffusion of Responsibility: Bystander behavior is influenced by the number of people present (Darley & Latané, 1968).

3. Cognitive and Emotional Factors:

• Social Identity Theory: People naturally categorize the social world into groups, influencing prosocial behavior.

• Decision-Making Process (Latané & Darley, 1970):

  • Notice the situation.

  • Appraise it as an emergency.

  • Develop feelings of responsibility.

  • Believe in having the skills to succeed.

  • Reach a conscious decision to help.

• Empathy-Altruism Model (Batson, 1991):

  • Empathetic concern: Tenderness, compassion, sympathy.

  • Emotional and motivational components influence prosocial behavior.

4. Biological Factors:

• Evolutionary Perspective: Genes are central, promoting survival and reproduction.

• Inclusive Fitness: Ability to pass on genes to the next generation, considering direct and shared genes of close relatives.

• Kin Selection Theory: Prosocial behavior as an adaptive response for increasing group and individual survival.

• Empirical Support: Studies with animals (e.g., vampire bats, squirrels) and humans (Madsen et al., 2007) show kin selection in action.

• Circumstantial Cues: Biological relatedness moderated by shared developmental environment, familiarity, and social bonding (Sherman et al., 1997).

5. Comparison: Empathy-Altruism vs. Kin Selection:

• Empathy-Altruism: Cognitive focus, internal psychological processes.

  • Limited applicability to animal research due to the lack of cognitive insight.

  • Focus on day-to-day events rather than extreme situations.

• Kin Selection: Evolutionary theory focuses on biological reasons for altruistic behavior.

  • Assumes animals' behavior informs understanding of human behavior.

  • Focus on extreme events threatening individual and group survival.

• Complementary Nature: Both theories can complement each other, addressing different aspects of prosocial behavior.

  • Cognitive processes outlined in empathy-altruism likely result from evolutionary processes.

Promoting prosocial behavior

1. Definition and Sociocultural Considerations

• Prosocial Behavior: Behavior benefiting others or having positive social consequences (Staub, 1978).

• Parental Influence: Parents play a crucial role; warm parenting is associated with positive outcomes.

• Discipline Styles: Harsh discipline is negatively related to prosocial behavior; warmth, attachment, and responsiveness foster prosocial outcomes.

2. Cognitive and Emotional Considerations:

• Compassion and Regulation: Compassion motivates prosocial behavior; regulation of personal emotions is crucial.

• Negative Emotions: Individuals prone to negative emotions are less likely to engage in prosocial behavior.

• Temperamental Fearfulness: Influences a child's ability to internalize societal standards for prosocial behavior.

3. Biological Considerations:

• Temperamental Fearfulness: Biologically influenced trait impacting prosocial behavior.

• Inclusive Fitness: Evolutionary perspective; genes promoting prosocial behavior for group survival.

• Kin Selection Theory: Explains altruistic social behavior via genetic relatedness and shared genes.

4. Interactive Approach:

• Kochanska's Framework (1993): Internal morality and internalization of societal standards.

• Conscience Conceptualization: Two constructs - moral emotions and rule-compatible conduct.

• Interaction of Anxiety and Fearlessness: Anxiety interacts with parenting and social norms; empathy may be hindered by personal distress.

5. Strategies for Promoting Prosocial Behavior:

a. Kindness Curriculum in Preschool Children (Flook et al., 2015):

• Objective: Evaluate the effectiveness of a 12-week mindfulness-based Kindness Curriculum (KC).

• Components: Mindfulness, prosocial skills training, empathy, gratitude, and sharing.

• Results: KC group showed larger gains in social competence; and lower selfish behavior compared to control.

b. Emotion Coaching (Rose et al., 2015):

• Objective: Test the effectiveness of emotion coaching on children's behavior.

• Key Elements: Empathy and guidance; recognizing and validating emotions; problem-solving for self-regulation.

• Results: Improved communication, reduced disruptive behavior, and increased prosocial behavior in children.

• Quantitative Data: Reduced callouts in class, decreased exclusions, and improved well-being for adults.

Psychology of human behavior

1. Participant Engagement and Reactivity:

• Participants actively engaged in relationship research may have expectations affecting their behavior.

• Reactivity, where participants modify behavior to please researchers, can introduce bias.

2. Social Desirability Bias:

• Participants may exhibit social desirability bias, presenting themselves in socially acceptable ways.

• Research methods must account for potential biases in understanding prejudice and discrimination.

3. Reflexivity in Research:

• Researchers must be reflexive, acknowledging personal biases and contributions to meaning construction.

• Awareness of background, beliefs, and potential biases crucial for minimizing research distortions.

4. Methodological Considerations:

• Relationship issues are complex, requiring a combination of qualitative and quantitative mixed methods.

• Triangulation, using multiple data sources and perspectives, enhances research validity.

5. Example Studies:

• Tyler and Blader (2001): Measured the influence of identification on cooperation with groups using anonymous questionnaires.

• Puts (2005): Explored the effect of ovulation on attractiveness of male voices, revealing a link between ovulation cycles and perceived attractiveness.

• Fiske et al. (2002): Investigated stereotypes, emphasizing careful selection of outgroups to reduce social desirability concerns.

6. Generalization Considerations:

• Representational generalization involves applying findings to populations beyond the study's scope.

• Theoretical generalization extends theoretical concepts from the study to develop further theory.

• Researchers must consider the uniqueness of the populations studied and the relevance of findings to wider social theories.

Ethical considerations: psychology of human relationships

• Voluntary Participation:

  • Participants must be informed that their participation is voluntary.

  • Researchers should clarify that participants can withdraw consent at any stage.

• Providing Sufficient Information:

  • Participants should receive adequate information about the study.

  • Details include study funding, conductors, data usage, time requirements, and study topics.

• Obligation and Relationships:

  • Special consideration when researchers have a relationship with participants (e.g., counselor, professor).

  • Awareness of potential feelings of obligation and ensuring voluntary participation.

• Consent Renegotiation:

  • Participants should understand that consent can be renegotiated.

  • Flexibility in consent is crucial, especially when unexpected circumstances arise.

• Involvement of Children:

  • When children under 16 are involved, consent must be obtained from parents or legal guardians.

  • Respecting individual decisions while prioritizing the child's well-being.

• Use of Deception:

  • Researchers may use mild deception, but it should be justified.

  • Ethical concerns arise, and potential harm should be minimized.

• Example: Flook et al. (2015):

  • In the study testing the effectiveness of the Kindness Curriculum, informed consent was obtained from parents.

  • Children were individually consulted, respecting their decisions.

• Example: Aronson and Linder (1965):

  • Used deception to study the effect of overheard compliments on male attraction.

  • Raised ethical concerns due to the potential harm caused by manipulating self-esteem.

Protecting participants from (psychological or emotional) harm

• Preventive Action in Sensitive Research

  • Researchers must take preventive action to avoid harm, especially in sensitive topics like relationship problems or prejudice.

  • Qualitative methods may lead participants to disclose private information; precautions are necessary.

• Sensitivity to Participants' Feelings

  • Researchers in human relationships must be sensitive to participants' feelings.

  • Consideration of potential emotional impact and ethical concerns is crucial.

• Example: Kiesler and Baral (1970)

  • Tested the influence of self-esteem on interactions with an attractive woman.

  • Modern ethical standards would question deliberately manipulating self-esteem.

• Clear Understanding and Direct Questions

  • Participants should have a clear understanding of research topics before participation.

  • Researchers should use clear and direct questions to avoid unnecessary details and discomfort.

• Empathy and Discontinuation

  • If participants show discomfort, researchers should be empathetic and consider discontinuing the research.

  • Prioritize participants' well-being and emotional comfort.

• Avoiding Advice and Providing Information

  • Researchers should avoid providing advice or counseling participants.

  • Information about where to find help can be provided if needed.

• Anonymity and Confidentiality

  • Essential in psychological research to protect participants.

  • Identity should be unknown outside the research team, and measures must be in place to ensure confidentiality.

• Guaranteeing Anonymity

  • Researchers must demonstrate to RECs how they will guarantee participant anonymity.

  • Data should not be identifiable to readers, and anonymity should be maintained in report details.

• Confidentiality Assurance

  • Ensuring that research data remains confidential.

  • Archiving practices should align with confidentiality standards, and non-anonymized data should only be archived with participant consent.

• Ethical Issues in Small-Scale Research

  • Small-scale research, like case studies, poses challenges to anonymity.

  • Researchers must address the risk of participant identification in reports.