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Psychology of Human Relationships

Sociocultural Factors in Relationship Formation

  • Definition of Culture

    • Culture encompasses attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group and passed down through generations.

    • Shiraev and Levy (2004) define culture as a set of beliefs, values, superstitions, stereotypes, norms, customs, traditions, and fashions.

  • Sociocultural Events Influence Relationships:

    • Sociocultural events shape individuals' preferences in forming relationships.

    • Cultural dynamics impact who individuals are inclined to build connections with.

  • Components of Culture:

    • Attitudes:

      • Beliefs, encompassing political, religious, and moral perspectives.

      • Values that guide individuals' priorities and principles.

      • Superstitions and stereotypes influence perceptions.

    • Behaviors:

      • Norms dictate acceptable actions within a society.

      • Customs and traditions shape social interactions.

      • Fashions influence lifestyle choices and preferences.

  • Impact on Perception of Romantic Love:

    • Cultural norms and values influence how romantic love is perceived.

    • Defines societal expectations regarding the intensity and expression of romantic feelings.

  • Criteria for Attraction:

    • Cultural norms dictate what qualities are deemed attractive in a potential partner.

    • Influences preferences related to physical appearance, social status, and educational background.

  • Guidance on Relationship Initiation:

    • Cultural norms guide when individuals are expected to initiate romantic relationships.

    • Societal expectations regarding the appropriate timing for entering into romantic relations.

  • Role in Partner Selection:

    • Cultural values impact the characteristics considered desirable in a partner.

    • Shapes individuals' criteria for selecting a mate, including factors like personality, values, and social status.

  • Arranged Marriages and Cultural Influence:

    • Some cultures practice arranged marriages, emphasizing the role of societal expectations in relationship formation.

    • Reflects the influence of cultural norms on familial involvement in selecting partners.

  • Gender Roles and Relationship Dynamics:

    • Cultural expectations regarding gender roles impact power dynamics and division of labor within relationships.

    • Societal attitudes toward evolving gender roles can influence the nature of relationships.

  • Cultural Diversity in Relationships:

    • Sociocultural factors are crucial in intercultural relationships.

    • Managing cultural differences becomes a central aspect of relationship formation.

Cultural Variability in Attraction and Relationship Formation

  • Cross-Cultural Differences in Attractiveness:

    • Cunningham et al. (1995) observed cultural variations in the perception of attractive bodies.

    • Example: African American men found larger women more attractive than white men, highlighting cultural specificity in beauty standards.

  • Cross-Cultural Variances in Female Physical Attributes:

    • Swami et al. (2006) compared UK and Japanese perceptions of an attractive female body.

    • Findings: Japanese preferences differed significantly, emphasizing lower body mass indexes (BMI) and specific body shapes compared to Britons.

  • BMI as a Universal Determinant:

    • Swami and Tovee (2005) found BMI as the primary determinant of female physical attractiveness in both the UK and Malaysia.

    • Cultural Variation: Attractiveness preferences varied along a socioeconomic gradient, with urban participants favoring lower BMIs compared to rural counterparts.

  • Buss's Cross-Cultural Study on Relationship Formation:

    • Buss (1994) investigated factors in relationship formation across 37 cultures.

    • Universals: Men prefer younger mates, and women prefer older mates.

    • Cultural Differences: Varied importance placed on characteristics; e.g., virginity is highly valued in China, Taiwan, India, and Iran, but less so in Finland, Denmark, Sweden, France, and Germany.

  • Impact of Rural vs. Urban Contexts:

    • The importance of love in relationship formation may vary with the level of urbanization and survival pressures.

    • Lindholm's suggestion: In more rural communities where survival is a primary concern, love may be less important compared to other factors.

  • Globalization and Changing Cultural Constructs:

    • The spread of Western approaches to relationships worldwide is noted, possibly influenced by globalization.

    • Romantic love, while not universal, is becoming more widespread as cultures adopt aspects of Western relationship ideals.

Cultural Perspectives and Arranged Marriages

  • Passionate Love as Culturally Specific:

    • Goodwin (1995) argues that the notion of passionate love as a primary reason for forming serious relationships is culturally specific, particularly to Western cultures.

    • In more traditional societies, the emphasis is on loving the person one marries rather than marrying for passionate love.

  • Arranged Marriages as Sociocultural Norms:

    • In several cultures, arranged marriages are common, challenging the Western emphasis on passionate love as a basis for marriage.

    • Parents often play a central role in the decision-making process, sometimes presenting a range of potential partners for their child.

  • Lack of Individual Choice in Arranged Marriages:

    • In some cases of arranged marriages, the individuals involved may have little or no say in choosing their partners or deciding on the marriage.

    • The decision-making power often lies with parents or other family members.

  • Factors Contributing to Arranged Marriage Success:

    • In arranged marriages, the involvement of a third party (e.g., parents) is considered a factor contributing to their success.

    • Intellectual elements, along with emotional factors, play a role in decision-making.

Social Cues: Influences on Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior

  • Definition of Social Cues:

    • Social cues are visual or non-verbal characteristics in an environment that influence people's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

  • Examples of Social Cues:

    • Body Language:

      • Gestures, postures, and movements that convey information without verbal communication.

      • Example: A person crossing their arms may indicate defensiveness or resistance.

    • Facial Expressions:

      • Emotional expressions are conveyed through changes in facial muscles.

      • Example: A smile indicates happiness or approval, while a frown may convey disapproval or sadness.

Biological Approach to Relationship Formation: Evolutionary Perspective

Assumptions:

  • Biological Influence on Relationship Formation:

    • Assumes that biological events significantly influence individuals' preferences in forming relationships.

  • Survival Purpose of Heterosexual Relationships:

    • Explains that heterosexual relationships serve a survival purpose by facilitating the transmission of the best possible genetic combinations to offspring.

Evolutionary Arguments for Heterosexuality:

  • Attraction as an Adaptive Function:

    • Attraction is viewed as a product of evolution, serving as an adaptive function for the survival and reproduction of the species.

  • Gender-Specific Preferences:

    • Males:

      • Generally prefer younger women.

      • Pay attention to physical details like teeth, lip color, hair length and shine, hip size, and skin smoothness—characteristics representing the ability to produce offspring.

    • Females:

      • Generally prefer older men.

      • Pay attention to characteristics like ambition, wealth, intelligence, social status, energy levels, and good health—traits associated with the ability to provide for offspring.

Genetic Point of View:

  • Attraction, according to this perspective, has evolved as a genetically encoded trait.

Similarities and Differences:

  • Similarities:

    • Both genders pay attention to the appearance of a potential mate.

    • Both sexes value traits like 'kindness' and 'intelligence.'

  • Differences:

    • Males and females exhibit gender-specific preferences based on evolutionary needs for reproductive success.

Empirical Support:

  • The gender differences in attraction are supported by large-scale cross-cultural surveys, such as those conducted by Buss (1994, 1995).

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Genes in Relationship Formation

Assumption:

  • The attraction between individuals is influenced by the combination of their genes, to produce healthy offspring.

Evidence for Assumption:

  • Attraction to pheromones carried in sweat, containing information about a person's immune system.

  • Assumption: Genetically different immune systems complement each other, potentially resulting in offspring with a robust immune system.

Role of MHC Genes:

  • Control of Immunological Self on-Self Discrimination:

    • MHC genes control immunological self-self discrimination, tissue rejection, and immune recognition of infectious diseases.

  • Importance for Health:

    • MHC genes play a crucial role in ensuring individuals stay healthy by regulating immune responses.

Sexual Selection and MHC Genes:

  • Avoiding Inbreeding:

    • MHC genes are assumed to be the product of sexual selection, aiming to improve the immune system of offspring and prevent inbreeding.

Studies on Mice:

  • Studies in house mice suggest that both males and females prefer mates with MHC-dissimilar genes, recognized through odor cues.

Studies in Humans:

  • Human studies, including those by Wedekind and Penn (2000), found associations between MHC-associated odors and mating preferences.

Cognitive Health Connection:

  • Facial symmetry is linked to greater cognitive health, with symmetry indicating the reliability and precision of developmental processes (Penke et al., 2009).

  • Supports the bodily integrity hypothesis, suggesting a correlation between scoring well on cognitive ability tests and a general tendency for overall body systems to be efficient and healthy (Deary, 2012).

Associations with Physical Health:

  • Facial symmetry is not only an indicator of cognitive health but is also associated with better physical health.

  • The bodily cues provided by facial symmetry may offer insights into both cognitive and physical well-being.

The Golden Ratio:

  • Facial symmetry has been suggested to be linked with the mathematical concept of the 'golden ratio.'

  • The golden ratio refers to pleasing and harmonious proportions that adhere to a specific mathematical equation.

The complexity of Achieving Symmetry:

  • Achieving facial symmetry is a complex task during human growth, involving billions of cell reproductions while maintaining a parallel structure.

  • Facial symmetry is considered a visible signal of genetic health, as it reflects successful and precise developmental processes.

Biological Origins and Cross-Cultural Consistency:

  • Perceiving facial symmetry has a clear cognitive element and is cross-cultural, suggesting biological origins.

  • The universality of appreciating facial symmetry across cultures indicates a shared, biologically rooted perception.

Limitations:

  • While facial symmetry is considered an indicator of attractiveness, there are cross-cultural differences in beauty standards.

  • Cultural factors can influence what is perceived as beautiful, emphasizing the interplay between biological and cultural influences.

Ovulation and Its Influence on Attractiveness: Research Insights

Impact of Ovulation on Women's Attractiveness:

  • Ovulation is believed to influence women's preferences in men and their physical appearance, impacting their attractiveness to prospective partners.

Concealed Ovulation in Humans:

  • Unlike some other mammals, human females conceal ovulation, giving them more control over reproduction.

  • Concealing ovulation allows females to have more control and potentially cheat on mates without being detected during ovulation.

The role of cognitive factors in the formation of relationships

Halo Effect:

  • Definition:

    • The false correlation of positive characteristics, assuming that someone with a few positive traits possesses many positive characteristics.

  • Association with Physical Attractiveness:

    • The halo effect is sometimes linked to physical attractiveness, where people may assume that physically attractive individuals possess other positive traits.

The Role of Listening in Relationship Satisfaction: Insights from Ahmad and Reid (2008)

  • Research Context:

    • Ahmad and Reid (2008) explored the connection between traditional roles, communication styles, and marital satisfaction.

    • Focused on South Asian couples in Canada, particularly those with traditional beliefs in marriage.

  • Methodology:

    • Married individuals of South Asian descent participated.

    • Only one partner per couple completed the questionnaire.

  • Questionnaire Content:

    • Explored attitudes toward marriage.

    • Examined communication styles within the marriage.

    • Assessed marital satisfaction.

  • Key Findings:

    • Traditional role beliefs did not necessarily lead to lower satisfaction.

    • The critical factor was the listening style in the relationship.

  • Listening Style and Satisfaction:

    • Couples with traditional beliefs but effective listening were more likely to be satisfied.

    • Emphasizes the importance of actively listening to understand a partner's feelings.

  • Insights from Arranged Marriages:

    • Arranged marriages with traditional beliefs can be satisfying.

    • Listening plays a pivotal role in producing satisfaction despite having fewer choices in partners.

  • Implications:

    • Communication, specifically active listening, may play a more significant role in relationship satisfaction than cultural factors influencing marriage.

Why do relationships change or end

Attribution Changes in Relationships: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

  • Explanation of Behavior: Attribution involves explaining the behavior of others in our environment.

  • Emotional Influence: Attributions can be influenced by our emotional connection and feelings toward the person.

Perceptions of Benefits and Rewards in Relationships: Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory (SET):

  • Basic Assumption: Relationships are maintained through continuous cost-benefit analysis.

  • Balance Requirement: Balance between partners' investments and returns is crucial for relationship stability.

  • Dependence on Perception: SET involves the perception of imbalances and inequality, which is subjective to individual viewpoints.

Student A study Carlson et al. (2014):

  • Focus: Analyzed data on housework and sexual frequency from the 2006 Marital and Relationship Survey.

  • Participants: 600 married and cohabiting low to moderate-income couples with children.

Findings:

  • Equal Housework and Sexual Frequency:

    • Couples sharing routine housework equally reported the highest sexual frequency (7.74 times a month).

    • Higher satisfaction and quality of the sexual relationship in these couples.

Gender Equality and Intimacy:

  • Changing Gender Roles: Men participating in housework and childcare are seen as fair.

  • Increased Intimacy: Perception of fairness in cost-benefit analysis leads to increased intimacy in Western societies.

Role of Expectations:

  • Traditional vs. Non-Traditional Expectations:

    • Traditional marriages may have different expectations regarding roles and contributions.

    • Clear roles in traditional settings may provide a framework for perceived fairness.

Norway Divorce Rates:

  • Traditional Roles vs. Gender Equality:

    • Despite Norway's gender equality, couples with more traditional roles had lower divorce rates.

    • Suggests that clarity in roles and expectations aligns with perceived fairness.

Sociocultural Change: Empowerment and Financial Independence of Women

  • Sociocultural changes, particularly in the West, have led to increased empowerment and financial independence for women.

  • Shifts in cultural norms and economic structures have influenced women's roles in the workforce and relationships.

Empowerment through Workforce Participation:

  • Statistical Trends (Office for National Statistics, 2013):

    • The employment rate of women aged 16 to 64 rose from 53% in 1971 to 66% in 2012.

    • Concurrently, there has been a decline in employment for men.

Factors Influencing Sociocultural Change:

  • Rise of the Service Sector:

    • Shift from heavy industry to the service sector, favoring opportunities for women.

    • Women actively developing careers in diverse fields.

  • Impact on Relationships:

    • Career development requires time and energy, potentially delaying serious or long-term relationships.

    • Pressure on women due to biological time constraints related to fertility.

    • Men, not facing the same fertility decline, may feel less urgency to commit in the early stages of a relationship.

Relationship Dynamics: Early vs. Later Stages:

  • Early Stages:

    • Women may feel pressure to manage both careers and the desire to have children.

    • Men may perceive less urgency regarding commitment due to a lack of similar biological time constraints.

  • Later Stages:

    • Increased financial independence for women.

    • Accumulation of financial capital, such as shared property ownership.

    • Women are more capable of supporting themselves outside marriage.

Impact on Freedom of Choice:

  • Women have more freedom of choice in later relationship stages:

    • Financial independence.

    • Easier and cheaper divorce options.

Less Stigma for Divorce in Western Cultures

  • Introduction of No-Fault Divorce:

    • Initiated in some US states in the 1950s.

    • Couples were no longer required to prove fault; citing a broken-down marriage was sufficient.

    • By 1970, most US states adopted laws allowing no-fault divorces.

Impact on Divorce Rates:

  • Divorce Rates in the US:

    • 1940-1965: The divorce rate remained near ten divorces for every 1000 married women.

    • 1979: The rate increased to 20 divorces for every 1000 married women.

  • Factors Contributing to Increased Divorce Rates:

    • Adoption of no-fault divorce laws.

    • Changing societal attitudes toward divorce.

Changing Societal Influences

  • Decline of Religious Influence:

    • Religion's diminished role in influencing relationship decisions.

    • Couples are more likely to seek divorce when facing challenges.

  • Legal Relaxations:

    • Legal changes making divorce more accessible.

Impact on Stigma

  • Reduced Stigma:

    • No-fault divorce reduces the stigma associated with divorce.

    • Couples can choose divorce without attributing blame to one party.

  • Attitude Shifts:

    • Changing societal attitudes towards divorce.

    • Divorce becomes a more acceptable option for couples facing challenges.

Aging and Active Population: Changing Dynamics in Relationships

Increased Life Expectancy

  • Health Improvements:

    • Better healthcare and education contribute to longer, healthier lives.

    • The overall increase in life expectancy in Western developed economies.

  • Changing Perspectives:

    • People no longer view late middle age as the end of life.

    • A shift towards starting second major relationships in extended life cycles.

Impact on Sexual Health

  • STD Rates:

    • As couples end long-term relationships, STD rates among older individuals increase.

    • In the USA (2013), people aged 55 and older accounted for 26% of those living with HIV.

  • Medication and Sexual Activity:

    • Introduction of medications for erectile dysfunction for older men.

    • Enables older individuals to engage in sexual activity in later years.

Educational Gaps and Perception

  • Lack of Education:

    • Older men tend to be less educated about STD risks.

    • May not be well-informed about safe practices.

  • Perceived Low Risk:

    • Older individuals may perceive themselves at low risk for STDs.

    • Contributes to the spread of STDs in this age group.

Group Dynamics

  • Inclusive Fitness

    • Definition:

      • The ability of an individual organism to pass on its genes to the next generation.

      • Consider direct descendants and shared genes of close relatives.

    • Explanation:

      • Enhances evolutionary success by promoting the reproduction and survival of genetically similar individuals.

      • Underpins kin selection theory, emphasizing intragroup cooperation as an adaptation.

  • Intragroup Cooperation and Kin Selection

    • Behavioral Adaptations:

      • Individuals engage in behaviors benefiting their ingroup, even at personal cost.

      • Motivation to help genetically similar individuals within the group.

      • Kin selection theory suggests intragroup cooperation as an evolutionary adaptation.

  • Intergroup Competitiveness

    • Alternative Adaptation:

      • Intergroup competitiveness is considered an adaptation.

      • Non-human primates exhibit sensitivity to social hierarchies and group distinctions.

      • Competitiveness is observed in more primitive species, responding to situational factors.

Examples from Non-Human Primates:

  • Primate Behavior:

    • Non-human primates show sensitivity to individual rankings within groups.

      • Recognition of social category fault lines, distinguishing between ingroup and outgroups.

  • Primitive Species and Competitiveness:

    • Sensitivity to Situational Factors:

      • Primitive species, such as beetle larvae and cockroaches, exhibit competitiveness.

      • Sensitivity to situational factors, including the number of potential competitors.

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

  • Conceptual Framework

    • Developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979).

    • Assumes natural division of social environment into ingroups (us) and outgroups (them or the other).

  • Social Categorization:

    • Reduction of Differences:

      • Reduces perceived differences within the ingroup.

      • Reduces perceived differences in the outgroup.

      • Increases perceived differences between the ingroup and outgroup.

  • Category Accentuation Effect:

    • Exaggeration of Differences:

      • Exaggeration of ingroup and outgroup differences.

      • Accentuation of intragroup similarities.

  • Social Identity Process:

    • Assimilation:

      • Individuals assimilate into their group by adopting the group's identity.

      • Behave in ways consistent with group behavior.

      • The group becomes the person's ingroup.

  • Social Comparison:

    • Identification and Comparison:

      • Individuals categorize themselves within a group.

      • Compare their ingroup with another group (outgroup).

      • Positive distinctiveness for self-esteem enhancement.

  • Ethnocentrism:

    • Ingroup Bias:

      • Positive behaviors of ingroup attributed to dispositional factors.

      • Negative behaviors of ingroup attributed to situational factors.

      • Positive behaviors of outgroup attributed to situational factors.

      • Negative behaviors of outgroup attributed to dispositional factors.

  • Stereotyping:

    • Fixed Images:

      • Fixed and oversimplified images of individuals or groups.

      • Occurs when individuals are perceived as members of an outgroup.

      • Assumes shared characteristics among outgroup members.

  • Perceptions of Group Homogeneity:

    • Linked to Social Identity:

      • Stereotypes are influenced by social identity processes.

      • Group homogeneity perceptions apply to both ingroups and outgroups.

  • Group Dynamics:

    • Definition:

      • System of behaviors and psychological processes within social ingroups.

      • Study applicable to understanding prosocial behavior, prejudice, discrimination, and violence.

    • Intragroup and Intergroup Dynamics:

      • Ingroups and outgroups are defined through comparisons and contrasts.

Cooperation and Social Identity Theory (SIT)

Cooperation:

  • Definition: A prosocial process where individuals work together for mutual benefit.

  • Contrast with Competition:

    • Competition: Individuals work toward selfish, non-shareable goals.

    • Cooperation usually occurs within ingroups as an intragroup process.

  • Enhancement of Organized Groups:

    • Shared group identity increases cooperative behavior (Brewer, 2008).

    • The viability of organized groups is boosted when members act to enhance group functioning (Tyler & Blader, 2000).

Tyler and Blader's Types of Cooperation Within Ingroups:

  • Following Group Rules:

  • Conducting Work on Behalf of the Group:

  • Intention to Stay Within the Group:

    • Intention has a cognitive nature but also involves social signaling.

    • A lack of clear intention may be interpreted as a lack of motivation to cooperate.

Two Types of Basic Cooperative Behavior:

  • Mandatory (Required) Behaviors:

    • Specified for particular roles in a group.

    • Originates from the group or group leader.

  • Discretionary (Non-Required) Behaviors:

    • Goes beyond required actions.

    • Originates from a group member, not the group.

SIT's Role in Ingroup Cooperation:

  • Individuals cooperate with their group as long as it provides a positive social identity.

  • If not, individuals might be tempted to change group membership (Doosje et al., 1999).

  • Ongoing cognitive process: Constantly measuring perceived group quality and the extent of being considered a group member.

  • The link between group success and maintaining a positive self-identity.

Identification and Ingroup Cooperation:

  • Identification Definition: The degree to which people merge their sense of self with the group.

  • Higher identification leads to:

    • Greater willingness to act cooperatively.

    • More investment in working toward group success (mandatory and discretionary behavior).

Competitive Behavior and Comparison Concerns:

  • Definition of Competition:

    • The presence of socially comparative groups triggers competitive behavior (Festinger, 1954).

    • Social comparison theory suggests individuals are driven to improve their performance and minimize discrepancies with others (Garcia et al., 2013).

  • Comparison Concerns:

    • Prime Motivator:

      • Garcia et al. (2013) emphasize that comparison concerns drive competitive behavior.

      • Defined as the desire to achieve or maintain a 'superior relative position.'

      • Note: This notion implies a perception of a superior relative position rather than an absolute one.

  • Factors Influencing Comparison Concerns:

    • Relevance of Performance Dimension:

      • Tesser (1988) indicates that competitiveness increases with the relevance of the activity to the individual.

    • Degree of Similarity to the Target:

      • Kilduff et al. (2010) find that competitiveness rises with greater similarity to the rival.

    • Closeness to the Target:

      • Pleban and Tesser (1981) reveal that competitiveness increases with the proximity of the individual to their rival.

Prejudice and discrimination

  • Definitions:

    • Prejudice: Unjustified, usually negative thoughts and feelings based on perceived group membership.

    • Discrimination: Negative behavior based on perceived group membership.

  • Components and Manifestation:

    • Prejudice has cognitive and affective components, while discrimination is the behavioral expression.

    • Prejudice doesn't always translate into behavior; individuals may hold prejudicial views without acting on them.

  • Challenges in Studying:

    • Social desirability bias can impact the self-reporting of prejudicial attitudes.

    • Groups are dynamic, and individuals may identify with multiple groups, complicating research.

  • Prejudice Factors:

    • Taylor and Moriarty (1987) found competition and physical distinctiveness amplify ingroup favoritism and outgroup prejudice.

    • The Stereotype Content Model (SCM) identifies warmth and competence as fundamental dimensions in ingroup/outgroup perceptions.

  • Discrimination Factors:

    • Discrimination's behavioral nature requires a sociocultural context for manifestation.

    • Etieyibo and Omiegbe (2016) explored cultural and religious contributions to discrimination against people with disabilities in Nigeria.

  • Discrimination Forms in Nigeria:

    • Discrimination includes serious human rights abuses, such as burning women accused of witchcraft, raping women with mental illness for perceived wealth, and killing people with albinism for rituals.

  • Cultural Influence on Discrimination:

    • Disability is viewed as a cultural construct, and discriminatory practices are rooted in cultural beliefs.

    • People with disabilities are targeted for perceived social, personal, and economic benefits, leading to ritualized killings.

  • Religion and Culture Impact:

    • Religion and culture play powerful roles in shaping negative attitudes and discriminatory practices against people with disabilities in Nigeria.

  • Global Issue:

    • Discrimination against people with disabilities is not limited to Nigeria; historically, it has been prevalent globally, marked by various oppressive social attitudes.

Understanding Conflict and Resolving Disputes

Introduction:

  • Definition: Peace psychology is an academic field focused on understanding and addressing conflicts within groups, aiming to achieve sustainable peace through non-violent methods.

  • Scope: Encompasses psychological dynamics, politics, diplomacy, military and economic considerations, and sociocultural, international, and national structures affecting peace.

Biological Perspectives:

  • Inclusive fitness and kin selection theory suggest instinctive ingroup favoritism, fostering intergroup competition and intragroup cooperation.

  • Sociocultural Dynamics:

    • Social Identity Theory (SIT) by Tajfel emphasizes the natural division of the social environment into ingroups and outgroups.

    • Social categorization reduces perceived differences within ingroups and exaggerates differences between ingroups and outgroups (category accentuation effect).

    • Ethnocentrism, an ingroup-serving bias, can be explained by SIT.

  • Cognitive Perspectives:

    • Social Comparison: Individuals enhance self-esteem by positively perceiving their ingroup and negatively perceiving other groups.

    • Taylor and Moriarty (1987) demonstrate how physical distinctiveness along racial lines plays a crucial role in conflict origins.

  • Stereotype Content Model (SCM):

    • SCM shows the correlation between perceived status of outgroups, perceived competence, and competition. Outgroups are seen as warm when not competing with ingroups.

  • Social Dominance Orientation (SDO):

    • A personality trait where individuals prefer maintaining or increasing group differences, indicating a preference for hierarchies in social systems.

Obstacles to Conflict Resolution

  • Identifiable Ingroups and Outgroups: The presence of distinct group identities contributes to conflict.

  • Ethnocentricity: Belief in the superiority of the ingroup over the outgroup.

  • Dehumanization: Treating the outgroup as less than human.

  • Legitimization of Violence: Acceptance of violence towards the outgroup.

  • Enemy Images: Promotion of negative perceptions of the outgroup.

  • Education System Influence: Presence of educational values promoting power differentials, authoritarianism, and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO).

Approaches to Resolving Conflict

  • Recognition of Group Allegiance: Acknowledging that group allegiance can lead to intergroup conflict.

  • Understanding Group Identity: Recognizing the power of group identity, often referred to as the 'collective self.'

  • Building Peace Structures: Establishing and maintaining structures that promote peace and social responsibility, including physical and cultural aspects.

Social responsibility

Levine et al. (2001) Study:

  • Objective: Investigate the rate of helping behavior in different cities globally, considering economic development and cultural factors, including simpatia.

  • Methodology: Recorded instances of helping in various situations (e.g., a person pretending to be blind, a person with a leg brace dropping magazines) in major cities from 23 countries.

Findings:

  • Inverse Relationship with Economic Development: Countries with lower economic productivity were generally more helpful.

  • Role of Simpatia: Countries with a cultural tradition of simpatia were, on average, more helpful than those without.

Ingroup Paradigm and Group Cohesion:

  • Explanation: Poorer communities may exhibit higher levels of helping due to increased group cohesion.

  • Cohesive Groups: People experience less anxiety and tension in more cohesive groups (Myers, 1962).

  • Stress Coping: Belonging to a cohesive group contributes to better stress coping (Zaccaro et al., 1995).

Prosocial behavior

1. Definition and Motivation:

  • Prosocial Behavior: Actions that benefit others or have positive social consequences.

  • Altruism: Motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare (Batson, 1991).

  • Critique: Some argue that all human behavior ultimately seeks personal pleasure, challenging the existence of true altruism.

2. Sociocultural Factors:

  • Cultural Influence: Bystanderism studies consider economic development and cultural notions (e.g., simpatia).

  • Diffusion of Responsibility: Bystander behavior is influenced by the number of people present (Darley & Latané, 1968).

3. Cognitive and Emotional Factors:

  • Social Identity Theory: People naturally categorize the social world into groups, influencing prosocial behavior.

  • Decision-Making Process (Latané & Darley, 1970):

    • Notice the situation.

    • Appraise it as an emergency.

    • Develop feelings of responsibility.

    • Believe in having the skills to succeed.

    • Reach a conscious decision to help.

  • Empathy-Altruism Model (Batson, 1991):

    • Empathetic concern: Tenderness, compassion, sympathy.

    • Emotional and motivational components influence prosocial behavior.

4. Biological Factors:

  • Evolutionary Perspective: Genes are central, promoting survival and reproduction.

  • Inclusive Fitness: Ability to pass on genes to the next generation, considering direct and shared genes of close relatives.

  • Kin Selection Theory: Prosocial behavior as an adaptive response for increasing group and individual survival.

  • Empirical Support: Studies with animals (e.g., vampire bats, squirrels) and humans (Madsen et al., 2007) show kin selection in action.

  • Circumstantial Cues: Biological relatedness moderated by shared developmental environment, familiarity, and social bonding (Sherman et al., 1997).

5. Comparison: Empathy-Altruism vs. Kin Selection:

  • Empathy-Altruism: Cognitive focus, internal psychological processes.

    • Limited applicability to animal research due to the lack of cognitive insight.

    • Focus on day-to-day events rather than extreme situations.

  • Kin Selection: Evolutionary theory focuses on biological reasons for altruistic behavior.

    • Assumes animals' behavior informs understanding of human behavior.

    • Focus on extreme events threatening individual and group survival.

  • Complementary Nature: Both theories can complement each other, addressing different aspects of prosocial behavior.

    • Cognitive processes outlined in empathy-altruism likely result from evolutionary processes.

Promoting prosocial behavior

1. Definition and Sociocultural Considerations

  • Prosocial Behavior: Behavior benefiting others or having positive social consequences (Staub, 1978).

  • Parental Influence: Parents play a crucial role; warm parenting is associated with positive outcomes.

  • Discipline Styles: Harsh discipline is negatively related to prosocial behavior; warmth, attachment, and responsiveness foster prosocial outcomes.

2. Cognitive and Emotional Considerations:

  • Compassion and Regulation: Compassion motivates prosocial behavior; regulation of personal emotions is crucial.

  • Negative Emotions: Individuals prone to negative emotions are less likely to engage in prosocial behavior.

  • Temperamental Fearfulness: Influences a child's ability to internalize societal standards for prosocial behavior.

3. Biological Considerations:

  • Temperamental Fearfulness: Biologically influenced trait impacting prosocial behavior.

  • Inclusive Fitness: Evolutionary perspective; genes promoting prosocial behavior for group survival.

  • Kin Selection Theory: Explains altruistic social behavior via genetic relatedness and shared genes.

4. Interactive Approach:

  • Kochanska's Framework (1993): Internal morality and internalization of societal standards.

  • Conscience Conceptualization: Two constructs - moral emotions and rule-compatible conduct.

  • Interaction of Anxiety and Fearlessness: Anxiety interacts with parenting and social norms; empathy may be hindered by personal distress.

5. Strategies for Promoting Prosocial Behavior:

a. Kindness Curriculum in Preschool Children (Flook et al., 2015):

  • Objective: Evaluate the effectiveness of a 12-week mindfulness-based Kindness Curriculum (KC).

  • Components: Mindfulness, prosocial skills training, empathy, gratitude, and sharing.

  • Results: KC group showed larger gains in social competence; and lower selfish behavior compared to control.

b. Emotion Coaching (Rose et al., 2015):

  • Objective: Test the effectiveness of emotion coaching on children's behavior.

  • Key Elements: Empathy and guidance; recognizing and validating emotions; problem-solving for self-regulation.

  • Results: Improved communication, reduced disruptive behavior, and increased prosocial behavior in children.

  • Quantitative Data: Reduced callouts in class, decreased exclusions, and improved well-being for adults.

Psychology of human behavior

1. Participant Engagement and Reactivity:

  • Participants actively engaged in relationship research may have expectations affecting their behavior.

  • Reactivity, where participants modify behavior to please researchers, can introduce bias.

2. Social Desirability Bias:

  • Participants may exhibit social desirability bias, presenting themselves in socially acceptable ways.

  • Research methods must account for potential biases in understanding prejudice and discrimination.

3. Reflexivity in Research:

  • Researchers must be reflexive, acknowledging personal biases and contributions to meaning construction.

  • Awareness of background, beliefs, and potential biases crucial for minimizing research distortions.

4. Methodological Considerations:

  • Relationship issues are complex, requiring a combination of qualitative and quantitative mixed methods.

  • Triangulation, using multiple data sources and perspectives, enhances research validity.

5. Example Studies:

  • Tyler and Blader (2001): Measured the influence of identification on cooperation with groups using anonymous questionnaires.

  • Puts (2005): Explored the effect of ovulation on attractiveness of male voices, revealing a link between ovulation cycles and perceived attractiveness.

  • Fiske et al. (2002): Investigated stereotypes, emphasizing careful selection of outgroups to reduce social desirability concerns.

6. Generalization Considerations:

  • Representational generalization involves applying findings to populations beyond the study's scope.

  • Theoretical generalization extends theoretical concepts from the study to develop further theory.

  • Researchers must consider the uniqueness of the populations studied and the relevance of findings to wider social theories.

Ethical considerations: psychology of human relationships

  • Voluntary Participation:

    • Participants must be informed that their participation is voluntary.

    • Researchers should clarify that participants can withdraw consent at any stage.

  • Providing Sufficient Information:

    • Participants should receive adequate information about the study.

    • Details include study funding, conductors, data usage, time requirements, and study topics.

  • Obligation and Relationships:

    • Special consideration when researchers have a relationship with participants (e.g., counselor, professor).

    • Awareness of potential feelings of obligation and ensuring voluntary participation.

  • Consent Renegotiation:

    • Participants should understand that consent can be renegotiated.

    • Flexibility in consent is crucial, especially when unexpected circumstances arise.

  • Involvement of Children:

    • When children under 16 are involved, consent must be obtained from parents or legal guardians.

    • Respecting individual decisions while prioritizing the child's well-being.

  • Use of Deception:

    • Researchers may use mild deception, but it should be justified.

    • Ethical concerns arise, and potential harm should be minimized.

  • Example: Flook et al. (2015):

    • In the study testing the effectiveness of the Kindness Curriculum, informed consent was obtained from parents.

    • Children were individually consulted, respecting their decisions.

  • Example: Aronson and Linder (1965):

    • Used deception to study the effect of overheard compliments on male attraction.

    • Raised ethical concerns due to the potential harm caused by manipulating self-esteem.

Protecting participants from (psychological or emotional) harm

  • Preventive Action in Sensitive Research

    • Researchers must take preventive action to avoid harm, especially in sensitive topics like relationship problems or prejudice.

    • Qualitative methods may lead participants to disclose private information; precautions are necessary.

  • Sensitivity to Participants' Feelings

    • Researchers in human relationships must be sensitive to participants' feelings.

    • Consideration of potential emotional impact and ethical concerns is crucial.

  • Example: Kiesler and Baral (1970)

    • Tested the influence of self-esteem on interactions with an attractive woman.

    • Modern ethical standards would question deliberately manipulating self-esteem.

  • Clear Understanding and Direct Questions

    • Participants should have a clear understanding of research topics before participation.

    • Researchers should use clear and direct questions to avoid unnecessary details and discomfort.

  • Empathy and Discontinuation

    • If participants show discomfort, researchers should be empathetic and consider discontinuing the research.

    • Prioritize participants' well-being and emotional comfort.

  • Avoiding Advice and Providing Information

    • Researchers should avoid providing advice or counseling participants.

    • Information about where to find help can be provided if needed.

  • Anonymity and Confidentiality

    • Essential in psychological research to protect participants.

    • Identity should be unknown outside the research team, and measures must be in place to ensure confidentiality.

  • Guaranteeing Anonymity

    • Researchers must demonstrate to RECs how they will guarantee participant anonymity.

    • Data should not be identifiable to readers, and anonymity should be maintained in report details.

  • Confidentiality Assurance

    • Ensuring that research data remains confidential.

    • Archiving practices should align with confidentiality standards, and non-anonymized data should only be archived with participant consent.

  • Ethical Issues in Small-Scale Research

    • Small-scale research, like case studies, poses challenges to anonymity.

    • Researchers must address the risk of participant identification in reports.

Psychology of Human Relationships

Sociocultural Factors in Relationship Formation

  • Definition of Culture

    • Culture encompasses attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group and passed down through generations.

    • Shiraev and Levy (2004) define culture as a set of beliefs, values, superstitions, stereotypes, norms, customs, traditions, and fashions.

  • Sociocultural Events Influence Relationships:

    • Sociocultural events shape individuals' preferences in forming relationships.

    • Cultural dynamics impact who individuals are inclined to build connections with.

  • Components of Culture:

    • Attitudes:

      • Beliefs, encompassing political, religious, and moral perspectives.

      • Values that guide individuals' priorities and principles.

      • Superstitions and stereotypes influence perceptions.

    • Behaviors:

      • Norms dictate acceptable actions within a society.

      • Customs and traditions shape social interactions.

      • Fashions influence lifestyle choices and preferences.

  • Impact on Perception of Romantic Love:

    • Cultural norms and values influence how romantic love is perceived.

    • Defines societal expectations regarding the intensity and expression of romantic feelings.

  • Criteria for Attraction:

    • Cultural norms dictate what qualities are deemed attractive in a potential partner.

    • Influences preferences related to physical appearance, social status, and educational background.

  • Guidance on Relationship Initiation:

    • Cultural norms guide when individuals are expected to initiate romantic relationships.

    • Societal expectations regarding the appropriate timing for entering into romantic relations.

  • Role in Partner Selection:

    • Cultural values impact the characteristics considered desirable in a partner.

    • Shapes individuals' criteria for selecting a mate, including factors like personality, values, and social status.

  • Arranged Marriages and Cultural Influence:

    • Some cultures practice arranged marriages, emphasizing the role of societal expectations in relationship formation.

    • Reflects the influence of cultural norms on familial involvement in selecting partners.

  • Gender Roles and Relationship Dynamics:

    • Cultural expectations regarding gender roles impact power dynamics and division of labor within relationships.

    • Societal attitudes toward evolving gender roles can influence the nature of relationships.

  • Cultural Diversity in Relationships:

    • Sociocultural factors are crucial in intercultural relationships.

    • Managing cultural differences becomes a central aspect of relationship formation.

Cultural Variability in Attraction and Relationship Formation

  • Cross-Cultural Differences in Attractiveness:

    • Cunningham et al. (1995) observed cultural variations in the perception of attractive bodies.

    • Example: African American men found larger women more attractive than white men, highlighting cultural specificity in beauty standards.

  • Cross-Cultural Variances in Female Physical Attributes:

    • Swami et al. (2006) compared UK and Japanese perceptions of an attractive female body.

    • Findings: Japanese preferences differed significantly, emphasizing lower body mass indexes (BMI) and specific body shapes compared to Britons.

  • BMI as a Universal Determinant:

    • Swami and Tovee (2005) found BMI as the primary determinant of female physical attractiveness in both the UK and Malaysia.

    • Cultural Variation: Attractiveness preferences varied along a socioeconomic gradient, with urban participants favoring lower BMIs compared to rural counterparts.

  • Buss's Cross-Cultural Study on Relationship Formation:

    • Buss (1994) investigated factors in relationship formation across 37 cultures.

    • Universals: Men prefer younger mates, and women prefer older mates.

    • Cultural Differences: Varied importance placed on characteristics; e.g., virginity is highly valued in China, Taiwan, India, and Iran, but less so in Finland, Denmark, Sweden, France, and Germany.

  • Impact of Rural vs. Urban Contexts:

    • The importance of love in relationship formation may vary with the level of urbanization and survival pressures.

    • Lindholm's suggestion: In more rural communities where survival is a primary concern, love may be less important compared to other factors.

  • Globalization and Changing Cultural Constructs:

    • The spread of Western approaches to relationships worldwide is noted, possibly influenced by globalization.

    • Romantic love, while not universal, is becoming more widespread as cultures adopt aspects of Western relationship ideals.

Cultural Perspectives and Arranged Marriages

  • Passionate Love as Culturally Specific:

    • Goodwin (1995) argues that the notion of passionate love as a primary reason for forming serious relationships is culturally specific, particularly to Western cultures.

    • In more traditional societies, the emphasis is on loving the person one marries rather than marrying for passionate love.

  • Arranged Marriages as Sociocultural Norms:

    • In several cultures, arranged marriages are common, challenging the Western emphasis on passionate love as a basis for marriage.

    • Parents often play a central role in the decision-making process, sometimes presenting a range of potential partners for their child.

  • Lack of Individual Choice in Arranged Marriages:

    • In some cases of arranged marriages, the individuals involved may have little or no say in choosing their partners or deciding on the marriage.

    • The decision-making power often lies with parents or other family members.

  • Factors Contributing to Arranged Marriage Success:

    • In arranged marriages, the involvement of a third party (e.g., parents) is considered a factor contributing to their success.

    • Intellectual elements, along with emotional factors, play a role in decision-making.

Social Cues: Influences on Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior

  • Definition of Social Cues:

    • Social cues are visual or non-verbal characteristics in an environment that influence people's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

  • Examples of Social Cues:

    • Body Language:

      • Gestures, postures, and movements that convey information without verbal communication.

      • Example: A person crossing their arms may indicate defensiveness or resistance.

    • Facial Expressions:

      • Emotional expressions are conveyed through changes in facial muscles.

      • Example: A smile indicates happiness or approval, while a frown may convey disapproval or sadness.

Biological Approach to Relationship Formation: Evolutionary Perspective

Assumptions:

  • Biological Influence on Relationship Formation:

    • Assumes that biological events significantly influence individuals' preferences in forming relationships.

  • Survival Purpose of Heterosexual Relationships:

    • Explains that heterosexual relationships serve a survival purpose by facilitating the transmission of the best possible genetic combinations to offspring.

Evolutionary Arguments for Heterosexuality:

  • Attraction as an Adaptive Function:

    • Attraction is viewed as a product of evolution, serving as an adaptive function for the survival and reproduction of the species.

  • Gender-Specific Preferences:

    • Males:

      • Generally prefer younger women.

      • Pay attention to physical details like teeth, lip color, hair length and shine, hip size, and skin smoothness—characteristics representing the ability to produce offspring.

    • Females:

      • Generally prefer older men.

      • Pay attention to characteristics like ambition, wealth, intelligence, social status, energy levels, and good health—traits associated with the ability to provide for offspring.

Genetic Point of View:

  • Attraction, according to this perspective, has evolved as a genetically encoded trait.

Similarities and Differences:

  • Similarities:

    • Both genders pay attention to the appearance of a potential mate.

    • Both sexes value traits like 'kindness' and 'intelligence.'

  • Differences:

    • Males and females exhibit gender-specific preferences based on evolutionary needs for reproductive success.

Empirical Support:

  • The gender differences in attraction are supported by large-scale cross-cultural surveys, such as those conducted by Buss (1994, 1995).

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Genes in Relationship Formation

Assumption:

  • The attraction between individuals is influenced by the combination of their genes, to produce healthy offspring.

Evidence for Assumption:

  • Attraction to pheromones carried in sweat, containing information about a person's immune system.

  • Assumption: Genetically different immune systems complement each other, potentially resulting in offspring with a robust immune system.

Role of MHC Genes:

  • Control of Immunological Self on-Self Discrimination:

    • MHC genes control immunological self-self discrimination, tissue rejection, and immune recognition of infectious diseases.

  • Importance for Health:

    • MHC genes play a crucial role in ensuring individuals stay healthy by regulating immune responses.

Sexual Selection and MHC Genes:

  • Avoiding Inbreeding:

    • MHC genes are assumed to be the product of sexual selection, aiming to improve the immune system of offspring and prevent inbreeding.

Studies on Mice:

  • Studies in house mice suggest that both males and females prefer mates with MHC-dissimilar genes, recognized through odor cues.

Studies in Humans:

  • Human studies, including those by Wedekind and Penn (2000), found associations between MHC-associated odors and mating preferences.

Cognitive Health Connection:

  • Facial symmetry is linked to greater cognitive health, with symmetry indicating the reliability and precision of developmental processes (Penke et al., 2009).

  • Supports the bodily integrity hypothesis, suggesting a correlation between scoring well on cognitive ability tests and a general tendency for overall body systems to be efficient and healthy (Deary, 2012).

Associations with Physical Health:

  • Facial symmetry is not only an indicator of cognitive health but is also associated with better physical health.

  • The bodily cues provided by facial symmetry may offer insights into both cognitive and physical well-being.

The Golden Ratio:

  • Facial symmetry has been suggested to be linked with the mathematical concept of the 'golden ratio.'

  • The golden ratio refers to pleasing and harmonious proportions that adhere to a specific mathematical equation.

The complexity of Achieving Symmetry:

  • Achieving facial symmetry is a complex task during human growth, involving billions of cell reproductions while maintaining a parallel structure.

  • Facial symmetry is considered a visible signal of genetic health, as it reflects successful and precise developmental processes.

Biological Origins and Cross-Cultural Consistency:

  • Perceiving facial symmetry has a clear cognitive element and is cross-cultural, suggesting biological origins.

  • The universality of appreciating facial symmetry across cultures indicates a shared, biologically rooted perception.

Limitations:

  • While facial symmetry is considered an indicator of attractiveness, there are cross-cultural differences in beauty standards.

  • Cultural factors can influence what is perceived as beautiful, emphasizing the interplay between biological and cultural influences.

Ovulation and Its Influence on Attractiveness: Research Insights

Impact of Ovulation on Women's Attractiveness:

  • Ovulation is believed to influence women's preferences in men and their physical appearance, impacting their attractiveness to prospective partners.

Concealed Ovulation in Humans:

  • Unlike some other mammals, human females conceal ovulation, giving them more control over reproduction.

  • Concealing ovulation allows females to have more control and potentially cheat on mates without being detected during ovulation.

The role of cognitive factors in the formation of relationships

Halo Effect:

  • Definition:

    • The false correlation of positive characteristics, assuming that someone with a few positive traits possesses many positive characteristics.

  • Association with Physical Attractiveness:

    • The halo effect is sometimes linked to physical attractiveness, where people may assume that physically attractive individuals possess other positive traits.

The Role of Listening in Relationship Satisfaction: Insights from Ahmad and Reid (2008)

  • Research Context:

    • Ahmad and Reid (2008) explored the connection between traditional roles, communication styles, and marital satisfaction.

    • Focused on South Asian couples in Canada, particularly those with traditional beliefs in marriage.

  • Methodology:

    • Married individuals of South Asian descent participated.

    • Only one partner per couple completed the questionnaire.

  • Questionnaire Content:

    • Explored attitudes toward marriage.

    • Examined communication styles within the marriage.

    • Assessed marital satisfaction.

  • Key Findings:

    • Traditional role beliefs did not necessarily lead to lower satisfaction.

    • The critical factor was the listening style in the relationship.

  • Listening Style and Satisfaction:

    • Couples with traditional beliefs but effective listening were more likely to be satisfied.

    • Emphasizes the importance of actively listening to understand a partner's feelings.

  • Insights from Arranged Marriages:

    • Arranged marriages with traditional beliefs can be satisfying.

    • Listening plays a pivotal role in producing satisfaction despite having fewer choices in partners.

  • Implications:

    • Communication, specifically active listening, may play a more significant role in relationship satisfaction than cultural factors influencing marriage.

Why do relationships change or end

Attribution Changes in Relationships: Bradbury and Fincham (1990)

  • Explanation of Behavior: Attribution involves explaining the behavior of others in our environment.

  • Emotional Influence: Attributions can be influenced by our emotional connection and feelings toward the person.

Perceptions of Benefits and Rewards in Relationships: Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory (SET):

  • Basic Assumption: Relationships are maintained through continuous cost-benefit analysis.

  • Balance Requirement: Balance between partners' investments and returns is crucial for relationship stability.

  • Dependence on Perception: SET involves the perception of imbalances and inequality, which is subjective to individual viewpoints.

Student A study Carlson et al. (2014):

  • Focus: Analyzed data on housework and sexual frequency from the 2006 Marital and Relationship Survey.

  • Participants: 600 married and cohabiting low to moderate-income couples with children.

Findings:

  • Equal Housework and Sexual Frequency:

    • Couples sharing routine housework equally reported the highest sexual frequency (7.74 times a month).

    • Higher satisfaction and quality of the sexual relationship in these couples.

Gender Equality and Intimacy:

  • Changing Gender Roles: Men participating in housework and childcare are seen as fair.

  • Increased Intimacy: Perception of fairness in cost-benefit analysis leads to increased intimacy in Western societies.

Role of Expectations:

  • Traditional vs. Non-Traditional Expectations:

    • Traditional marriages may have different expectations regarding roles and contributions.

    • Clear roles in traditional settings may provide a framework for perceived fairness.

Norway Divorce Rates:

  • Traditional Roles vs. Gender Equality:

    • Despite Norway's gender equality, couples with more traditional roles had lower divorce rates.

    • Suggests that clarity in roles and expectations aligns with perceived fairness.

Sociocultural Change: Empowerment and Financial Independence of Women

  • Sociocultural changes, particularly in the West, have led to increased empowerment and financial independence for women.

  • Shifts in cultural norms and economic structures have influenced women's roles in the workforce and relationships.

Empowerment through Workforce Participation:

  • Statistical Trends (Office for National Statistics, 2013):

    • The employment rate of women aged 16 to 64 rose from 53% in 1971 to 66% in 2012.

    • Concurrently, there has been a decline in employment for men.

Factors Influencing Sociocultural Change:

  • Rise of the Service Sector:

    • Shift from heavy industry to the service sector, favoring opportunities for women.

    • Women actively developing careers in diverse fields.

  • Impact on Relationships:

    • Career development requires time and energy, potentially delaying serious or long-term relationships.

    • Pressure on women due to biological time constraints related to fertility.

    • Men, not facing the same fertility decline, may feel less urgency to commit in the early stages of a relationship.

Relationship Dynamics: Early vs. Later Stages:

  • Early Stages:

    • Women may feel pressure to manage both careers and the desire to have children.

    • Men may perceive less urgency regarding commitment due to a lack of similar biological time constraints.

  • Later Stages:

    • Increased financial independence for women.

    • Accumulation of financial capital, such as shared property ownership.

    • Women are more capable of supporting themselves outside marriage.

Impact on Freedom of Choice:

  • Women have more freedom of choice in later relationship stages:

    • Financial independence.

    • Easier and cheaper divorce options.

Less Stigma for Divorce in Western Cultures

  • Introduction of No-Fault Divorce:

    • Initiated in some US states in the 1950s.

    • Couples were no longer required to prove fault; citing a broken-down marriage was sufficient.

    • By 1970, most US states adopted laws allowing no-fault divorces.

Impact on Divorce Rates:

  • Divorce Rates in the US:

    • 1940-1965: The divorce rate remained near ten divorces for every 1000 married women.

    • 1979: The rate increased to 20 divorces for every 1000 married women.

  • Factors Contributing to Increased Divorce Rates:

    • Adoption of no-fault divorce laws.

    • Changing societal attitudes toward divorce.

Changing Societal Influences

  • Decline of Religious Influence:

    • Religion's diminished role in influencing relationship decisions.

    • Couples are more likely to seek divorce when facing challenges.

  • Legal Relaxations:

    • Legal changes making divorce more accessible.

Impact on Stigma

  • Reduced Stigma:

    • No-fault divorce reduces the stigma associated with divorce.

    • Couples can choose divorce without attributing blame to one party.

  • Attitude Shifts:

    • Changing societal attitudes towards divorce.

    • Divorce becomes a more acceptable option for couples facing challenges.

Aging and Active Population: Changing Dynamics in Relationships

Increased Life Expectancy

  • Health Improvements:

    • Better healthcare and education contribute to longer, healthier lives.

    • The overall increase in life expectancy in Western developed economies.

  • Changing Perspectives:

    • People no longer view late middle age as the end of life.

    • A shift towards starting second major relationships in extended life cycles.

Impact on Sexual Health

  • STD Rates:

    • As couples end long-term relationships, STD rates among older individuals increase.

    • In the USA (2013), people aged 55 and older accounted for 26% of those living with HIV.

  • Medication and Sexual Activity:

    • Introduction of medications for erectile dysfunction for older men.

    • Enables older individuals to engage in sexual activity in later years.

Educational Gaps and Perception

  • Lack of Education:

    • Older men tend to be less educated about STD risks.

    • May not be well-informed about safe practices.

  • Perceived Low Risk:

    • Older individuals may perceive themselves at low risk for STDs.

    • Contributes to the spread of STDs in this age group.

Group Dynamics

  • Inclusive Fitness

    • Definition:

      • The ability of an individual organism to pass on its genes to the next generation.

      • Consider direct descendants and shared genes of close relatives.

    • Explanation:

      • Enhances evolutionary success by promoting the reproduction and survival of genetically similar individuals.

      • Underpins kin selection theory, emphasizing intragroup cooperation as an adaptation.

  • Intragroup Cooperation and Kin Selection

    • Behavioral Adaptations:

      • Individuals engage in behaviors benefiting their ingroup, even at personal cost.

      • Motivation to help genetically similar individuals within the group.

      • Kin selection theory suggests intragroup cooperation as an evolutionary adaptation.

  • Intergroup Competitiveness

    • Alternative Adaptation:

      • Intergroup competitiveness is considered an adaptation.

      • Non-human primates exhibit sensitivity to social hierarchies and group distinctions.

      • Competitiveness is observed in more primitive species, responding to situational factors.

Examples from Non-Human Primates:

  • Primate Behavior:

    • Non-human primates show sensitivity to individual rankings within groups.

      • Recognition of social category fault lines, distinguishing between ingroup and outgroups.

  • Primitive Species and Competitiveness:

    • Sensitivity to Situational Factors:

      • Primitive species, such as beetle larvae and cockroaches, exhibit competitiveness.

      • Sensitivity to situational factors, including the number of potential competitors.

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

  • Conceptual Framework

    • Developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979).

    • Assumes natural division of social environment into ingroups (us) and outgroups (them or the other).

  • Social Categorization:

    • Reduction of Differences:

      • Reduces perceived differences within the ingroup.

      • Reduces perceived differences in the outgroup.

      • Increases perceived differences between the ingroup and outgroup.

  • Category Accentuation Effect:

    • Exaggeration of Differences:

      • Exaggeration of ingroup and outgroup differences.

      • Accentuation of intragroup similarities.

  • Social Identity Process:

    • Assimilation:

      • Individuals assimilate into their group by adopting the group's identity.

      • Behave in ways consistent with group behavior.

      • The group becomes the person's ingroup.

  • Social Comparison:

    • Identification and Comparison:

      • Individuals categorize themselves within a group.

      • Compare their ingroup with another group (outgroup).

      • Positive distinctiveness for self-esteem enhancement.

  • Ethnocentrism:

    • Ingroup Bias:

      • Positive behaviors of ingroup attributed to dispositional factors.

      • Negative behaviors of ingroup attributed to situational factors.

      • Positive behaviors of outgroup attributed to situational factors.

      • Negative behaviors of outgroup attributed to dispositional factors.

  • Stereotyping:

    • Fixed Images:

      • Fixed and oversimplified images of individuals or groups.

      • Occurs when individuals are perceived as members of an outgroup.

      • Assumes shared characteristics among outgroup members.

  • Perceptions of Group Homogeneity:

    • Linked to Social Identity:

      • Stereotypes are influenced by social identity processes.

      • Group homogeneity perceptions apply to both ingroups and outgroups.

  • Group Dynamics:

    • Definition:

      • System of behaviors and psychological processes within social ingroups.

      • Study applicable to understanding prosocial behavior, prejudice, discrimination, and violence.

    • Intragroup and Intergroup Dynamics:

      • Ingroups and outgroups are defined through comparisons and contrasts.

Cooperation and Social Identity Theory (SIT)

Cooperation:

  • Definition: A prosocial process where individuals work together for mutual benefit.

  • Contrast with Competition:

    • Competition: Individuals work toward selfish, non-shareable goals.

    • Cooperation usually occurs within ingroups as an intragroup process.

  • Enhancement of Organized Groups:

    • Shared group identity increases cooperative behavior (Brewer, 2008).

    • The viability of organized groups is boosted when members act to enhance group functioning (Tyler & Blader, 2000).

Tyler and Blader's Types of Cooperation Within Ingroups:

  • Following Group Rules:

  • Conducting Work on Behalf of the Group:

  • Intention to Stay Within the Group:

    • Intention has a cognitive nature but also involves social signaling.

    • A lack of clear intention may be interpreted as a lack of motivation to cooperate.

Two Types of Basic Cooperative Behavior:

  • Mandatory (Required) Behaviors:

    • Specified for particular roles in a group.

    • Originates from the group or group leader.

  • Discretionary (Non-Required) Behaviors:

    • Goes beyond required actions.

    • Originates from a group member, not the group.

SIT's Role in Ingroup Cooperation:

  • Individuals cooperate with their group as long as it provides a positive social identity.

  • If not, individuals might be tempted to change group membership (Doosje et al., 1999).

  • Ongoing cognitive process: Constantly measuring perceived group quality and the extent of being considered a group member.

  • The link between group success and maintaining a positive self-identity.

Identification and Ingroup Cooperation:

  • Identification Definition: The degree to which people merge their sense of self with the group.

  • Higher identification leads to:

    • Greater willingness to act cooperatively.

    • More investment in working toward group success (mandatory and discretionary behavior).

Competitive Behavior and Comparison Concerns:

  • Definition of Competition:

    • The presence of socially comparative groups triggers competitive behavior (Festinger, 1954).

    • Social comparison theory suggests individuals are driven to improve their performance and minimize discrepancies with others (Garcia et al., 2013).

  • Comparison Concerns:

    • Prime Motivator:

      • Garcia et al. (2013) emphasize that comparison concerns drive competitive behavior.

      • Defined as the desire to achieve or maintain a 'superior relative position.'

      • Note: This notion implies a perception of a superior relative position rather than an absolute one.

  • Factors Influencing Comparison Concerns:

    • Relevance of Performance Dimension:

      • Tesser (1988) indicates that competitiveness increases with the relevance of the activity to the individual.

    • Degree of Similarity to the Target:

      • Kilduff et al. (2010) find that competitiveness rises with greater similarity to the rival.

    • Closeness to the Target:

      • Pleban and Tesser (1981) reveal that competitiveness increases with the proximity of the individual to their rival.

Prejudice and discrimination

  • Definitions:

    • Prejudice: Unjustified, usually negative thoughts and feelings based on perceived group membership.

    • Discrimination: Negative behavior based on perceived group membership.

  • Components and Manifestation:

    • Prejudice has cognitive and affective components, while discrimination is the behavioral expression.

    • Prejudice doesn't always translate into behavior; individuals may hold prejudicial views without acting on them.

  • Challenges in Studying:

    • Social desirability bias can impact the self-reporting of prejudicial attitudes.

    • Groups are dynamic, and individuals may identify with multiple groups, complicating research.

  • Prejudice Factors:

    • Taylor and Moriarty (1987) found competition and physical distinctiveness amplify ingroup favoritism and outgroup prejudice.

    • The Stereotype Content Model (SCM) identifies warmth and competence as fundamental dimensions in ingroup/outgroup perceptions.

  • Discrimination Factors:

    • Discrimination's behavioral nature requires a sociocultural context for manifestation.

    • Etieyibo and Omiegbe (2016) explored cultural and religious contributions to discrimination against people with disabilities in Nigeria.

  • Discrimination Forms in Nigeria:

    • Discrimination includes serious human rights abuses, such as burning women accused of witchcraft, raping women with mental illness for perceived wealth, and killing people with albinism for rituals.

  • Cultural Influence on Discrimination:

    • Disability is viewed as a cultural construct, and discriminatory practices are rooted in cultural beliefs.

    • People with disabilities are targeted for perceived social, personal, and economic benefits, leading to ritualized killings.

  • Religion and Culture Impact:

    • Religion and culture play powerful roles in shaping negative attitudes and discriminatory practices against people with disabilities in Nigeria.

  • Global Issue:

    • Discrimination against people with disabilities is not limited to Nigeria; historically, it has been prevalent globally, marked by various oppressive social attitudes.

Understanding Conflict and Resolving Disputes

Introduction:

  • Definition: Peace psychology is an academic field focused on understanding and addressing conflicts within groups, aiming to achieve sustainable peace through non-violent methods.

  • Scope: Encompasses psychological dynamics, politics, diplomacy, military and economic considerations, and sociocultural, international, and national structures affecting peace.

Biological Perspectives:

  • Inclusive fitness and kin selection theory suggest instinctive ingroup favoritism, fostering intergroup competition and intragroup cooperation.

  • Sociocultural Dynamics:

    • Social Identity Theory (SIT) by Tajfel emphasizes the natural division of the social environment into ingroups and outgroups.

    • Social categorization reduces perceived differences within ingroups and exaggerates differences between ingroups and outgroups (category accentuation effect).

    • Ethnocentrism, an ingroup-serving bias, can be explained by SIT.

  • Cognitive Perspectives:

    • Social Comparison: Individuals enhance self-esteem by positively perceiving their ingroup and negatively perceiving other groups.

    • Taylor and Moriarty (1987) demonstrate how physical distinctiveness along racial lines plays a crucial role in conflict origins.

  • Stereotype Content Model (SCM):

    • SCM shows the correlation between perceived status of outgroups, perceived competence, and competition. Outgroups are seen as warm when not competing with ingroups.

  • Social Dominance Orientation (SDO):

    • A personality trait where individuals prefer maintaining or increasing group differences, indicating a preference for hierarchies in social systems.

Obstacles to Conflict Resolution

  • Identifiable Ingroups and Outgroups: The presence of distinct group identities contributes to conflict.

  • Ethnocentricity: Belief in the superiority of the ingroup over the outgroup.

  • Dehumanization: Treating the outgroup as less than human.

  • Legitimization of Violence: Acceptance of violence towards the outgroup.

  • Enemy Images: Promotion of negative perceptions of the outgroup.

  • Education System Influence: Presence of educational values promoting power differentials, authoritarianism, and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO).

Approaches to Resolving Conflict

  • Recognition of Group Allegiance: Acknowledging that group allegiance can lead to intergroup conflict.

  • Understanding Group Identity: Recognizing the power of group identity, often referred to as the 'collective self.'

  • Building Peace Structures: Establishing and maintaining structures that promote peace and social responsibility, including physical and cultural aspects.

Social responsibility

Levine et al. (2001) Study:

  • Objective: Investigate the rate of helping behavior in different cities globally, considering economic development and cultural factors, including simpatia.

  • Methodology: Recorded instances of helping in various situations (e.g., a person pretending to be blind, a person with a leg brace dropping magazines) in major cities from 23 countries.

Findings:

  • Inverse Relationship with Economic Development: Countries with lower economic productivity were generally more helpful.

  • Role of Simpatia: Countries with a cultural tradition of simpatia were, on average, more helpful than those without.

Ingroup Paradigm and Group Cohesion:

  • Explanation: Poorer communities may exhibit higher levels of helping due to increased group cohesion.

  • Cohesive Groups: People experience less anxiety and tension in more cohesive groups (Myers, 1962).

  • Stress Coping: Belonging to a cohesive group contributes to better stress coping (Zaccaro et al., 1995).

Prosocial behavior

1. Definition and Motivation:

  • Prosocial Behavior: Actions that benefit others or have positive social consequences.

  • Altruism: Motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare (Batson, 1991).

  • Critique: Some argue that all human behavior ultimately seeks personal pleasure, challenging the existence of true altruism.

2. Sociocultural Factors:

  • Cultural Influence: Bystanderism studies consider economic development and cultural notions (e.g., simpatia).

  • Diffusion of Responsibility: Bystander behavior is influenced by the number of people present (Darley & Latané, 1968).

3. Cognitive and Emotional Factors:

  • Social Identity Theory: People naturally categorize the social world into groups, influencing prosocial behavior.

  • Decision-Making Process (Latané & Darley, 1970):

    • Notice the situation.

    • Appraise it as an emergency.

    • Develop feelings of responsibility.

    • Believe in having the skills to succeed.

    • Reach a conscious decision to help.

  • Empathy-Altruism Model (Batson, 1991):

    • Empathetic concern: Tenderness, compassion, sympathy.

    • Emotional and motivational components influence prosocial behavior.

4. Biological Factors:

  • Evolutionary Perspective: Genes are central, promoting survival and reproduction.

  • Inclusive Fitness: Ability to pass on genes to the next generation, considering direct and shared genes of close relatives.

  • Kin Selection Theory: Prosocial behavior as an adaptive response for increasing group and individual survival.

  • Empirical Support: Studies with animals (e.g., vampire bats, squirrels) and humans (Madsen et al., 2007) show kin selection in action.

  • Circumstantial Cues: Biological relatedness moderated by shared developmental environment, familiarity, and social bonding (Sherman et al., 1997).

5. Comparison: Empathy-Altruism vs. Kin Selection:

  • Empathy-Altruism: Cognitive focus, internal psychological processes.

    • Limited applicability to animal research due to the lack of cognitive insight.

    • Focus on day-to-day events rather than extreme situations.

  • Kin Selection: Evolutionary theory focuses on biological reasons for altruistic behavior.

    • Assumes animals' behavior informs understanding of human behavior.

    • Focus on extreme events threatening individual and group survival.

  • Complementary Nature: Both theories can complement each other, addressing different aspects of prosocial behavior.

    • Cognitive processes outlined in empathy-altruism likely result from evolutionary processes.

Promoting prosocial behavior

1. Definition and Sociocultural Considerations

  • Prosocial Behavior: Behavior benefiting others or having positive social consequences (Staub, 1978).

  • Parental Influence: Parents play a crucial role; warm parenting is associated with positive outcomes.

  • Discipline Styles: Harsh discipline is negatively related to prosocial behavior; warmth, attachment, and responsiveness foster prosocial outcomes.

2. Cognitive and Emotional Considerations:

  • Compassion and Regulation: Compassion motivates prosocial behavior; regulation of personal emotions is crucial.

  • Negative Emotions: Individuals prone to negative emotions are less likely to engage in prosocial behavior.

  • Temperamental Fearfulness: Influences a child's ability to internalize societal standards for prosocial behavior.

3. Biological Considerations:

  • Temperamental Fearfulness: Biologically influenced trait impacting prosocial behavior.

  • Inclusive Fitness: Evolutionary perspective; genes promoting prosocial behavior for group survival.

  • Kin Selection Theory: Explains altruistic social behavior via genetic relatedness and shared genes.

4. Interactive Approach:

  • Kochanska's Framework (1993): Internal morality and internalization of societal standards.

  • Conscience Conceptualization: Two constructs - moral emotions and rule-compatible conduct.

  • Interaction of Anxiety and Fearlessness: Anxiety interacts with parenting and social norms; empathy may be hindered by personal distress.

5. Strategies for Promoting Prosocial Behavior:

a. Kindness Curriculum in Preschool Children (Flook et al., 2015):

  • Objective: Evaluate the effectiveness of a 12-week mindfulness-based Kindness Curriculum (KC).

  • Components: Mindfulness, prosocial skills training, empathy, gratitude, and sharing.

  • Results: KC group showed larger gains in social competence; and lower selfish behavior compared to control.

b. Emotion Coaching (Rose et al., 2015):

  • Objective: Test the effectiveness of emotion coaching on children's behavior.

  • Key Elements: Empathy and guidance; recognizing and validating emotions; problem-solving for self-regulation.

  • Results: Improved communication, reduced disruptive behavior, and increased prosocial behavior in children.

  • Quantitative Data: Reduced callouts in class, decreased exclusions, and improved well-being for adults.

Psychology of human behavior

1. Participant Engagement and Reactivity:

  • Participants actively engaged in relationship research may have expectations affecting their behavior.

  • Reactivity, where participants modify behavior to please researchers, can introduce bias.

2. Social Desirability Bias:

  • Participants may exhibit social desirability bias, presenting themselves in socially acceptable ways.

  • Research methods must account for potential biases in understanding prejudice and discrimination.

3. Reflexivity in Research:

  • Researchers must be reflexive, acknowledging personal biases and contributions to meaning construction.

  • Awareness of background, beliefs, and potential biases crucial for minimizing research distortions.

4. Methodological Considerations:

  • Relationship issues are complex, requiring a combination of qualitative and quantitative mixed methods.

  • Triangulation, using multiple data sources and perspectives, enhances research validity.

5. Example Studies:

  • Tyler and Blader (2001): Measured the influence of identification on cooperation with groups using anonymous questionnaires.

  • Puts (2005): Explored the effect of ovulation on attractiveness of male voices, revealing a link between ovulation cycles and perceived attractiveness.

  • Fiske et al. (2002): Investigated stereotypes, emphasizing careful selection of outgroups to reduce social desirability concerns.

6. Generalization Considerations:

  • Representational generalization involves applying findings to populations beyond the study's scope.

  • Theoretical generalization extends theoretical concepts from the study to develop further theory.

  • Researchers must consider the uniqueness of the populations studied and the relevance of findings to wider social theories.

Ethical considerations: psychology of human relationships

  • Voluntary Participation:

    • Participants must be informed that their participation is voluntary.

    • Researchers should clarify that participants can withdraw consent at any stage.

  • Providing Sufficient Information:

    • Participants should receive adequate information about the study.

    • Details include study funding, conductors, data usage, time requirements, and study topics.

  • Obligation and Relationships:

    • Special consideration when researchers have a relationship with participants (e.g., counselor, professor).

    • Awareness of potential feelings of obligation and ensuring voluntary participation.

  • Consent Renegotiation:

    • Participants should understand that consent can be renegotiated.

    • Flexibility in consent is crucial, especially when unexpected circumstances arise.

  • Involvement of Children:

    • When children under 16 are involved, consent must be obtained from parents or legal guardians.

    • Respecting individual decisions while prioritizing the child's well-being.

  • Use of Deception:

    • Researchers may use mild deception, but it should be justified.

    • Ethical concerns arise, and potential harm should be minimized.

  • Example: Flook et al. (2015):

    • In the study testing the effectiveness of the Kindness Curriculum, informed consent was obtained from parents.

    • Children were individually consulted, respecting their decisions.

  • Example: Aronson and Linder (1965):

    • Used deception to study the effect of overheard compliments on male attraction.

    • Raised ethical concerns due to the potential harm caused by manipulating self-esteem.

Protecting participants from (psychological or emotional) harm

  • Preventive Action in Sensitive Research

    • Researchers must take preventive action to avoid harm, especially in sensitive topics like relationship problems or prejudice.

    • Qualitative methods may lead participants to disclose private information; precautions are necessary.

  • Sensitivity to Participants' Feelings

    • Researchers in human relationships must be sensitive to participants' feelings.

    • Consideration of potential emotional impact and ethical concerns is crucial.

  • Example: Kiesler and Baral (1970)

    • Tested the influence of self-esteem on interactions with an attractive woman.

    • Modern ethical standards would question deliberately manipulating self-esteem.

  • Clear Understanding and Direct Questions

    • Participants should have a clear understanding of research topics before participation.

    • Researchers should use clear and direct questions to avoid unnecessary details and discomfort.

  • Empathy and Discontinuation

    • If participants show discomfort, researchers should be empathetic and consider discontinuing the research.

    • Prioritize participants' well-being and emotional comfort.

  • Avoiding Advice and Providing Information

    • Researchers should avoid providing advice or counseling participants.

    • Information about where to find help can be provided if needed.

  • Anonymity and Confidentiality

    • Essential in psychological research to protect participants.

    • Identity should be unknown outside the research team, and measures must be in place to ensure confidentiality.

  • Guaranteeing Anonymity

    • Researchers must demonstrate to RECs how they will guarantee participant anonymity.

    • Data should not be identifiable to readers, and anonymity should be maintained in report details.

  • Confidentiality Assurance

    • Ensuring that research data remains confidential.

    • Archiving practices should align with confidentiality standards, and non-anonymized data should only be archived with participant consent.

  • Ethical Issues in Small-Scale Research

    • Small-scale research, like case studies, poses challenges to anonymity.

    • Researchers must address the risk of participant identification in reports.