Memory & Thought (2.2a, 2.2b, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7)

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of an evaluating our mental processes

Schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

• (assimilation —> interpreting new experiences into our current schemas, accommodation —> adapting our current schemas)

Convergent thinking vs divergent thinking

convergent —> narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent —> expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Prototype, concept

concept —> a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people (BROAD category)

prototype —> a mental image or best example of a category (BEST example)

• matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing featured creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow)

Executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

Problem Solving Strategy

Algorithm —> a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. More reliable but slower

ex) following a recipe or solving a math problem

Heuristic —> — a mental shortcut— (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; faster but less reliable

ex) guessing a password based on common patterns rather than guessing random combinations

Intuition —> an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrast with strategy-based solutions

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Obstacles to Problem Solving

confirmation bias —> a tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions and ignore contradictory evidence

functional fixedness —> a cognitive bias that hinders problem-solving by limiting one's ability to see objects beyond their typical, intended uses

fixation —> the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

Problems in decision making

intuition

representative heuristics —> judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristics —> judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events as common

overconfidence —> the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

framing —> the ay an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

belief perseverance —> the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Recall, recognition, relearning

recall —> a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition —> a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on multiple-choice test

relearning —> a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Memory processes

encoding —> Transforming information so that the nervous system can process it.

• Auditory/Acoustic: repeating out loud ,or mentally repeating to yourself

• Visual: attempting to keep a mental picture

• Semantics: the meaning of the encoding itself

storage —> the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval —> the process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

Memory stages

• Sensory Memory – fraction of a second  (iconic-visual images) (echoic-auditory sounds)

• Working Memory/Short Term Memory (STM) — 1 minute

• Long Term Memory (LTM)—Unlimited capacity — remember it forever

Central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Sensory Memory

• Very brief storage of memory immediately following initial reception of stimulus

• Two types

  • Iconic (visual)

  • Echoic (auditory)

• Important!

  • Prevents you from being overwhelmed

  • Gives you some decision time

  • Continuity and stability

• Lasts for up to a couple seconds

Working Memory / Short-Term Memory

• Limited in capacity to about 7 items

• Length of memory depends on how actively you rehearse information

What it does;

• Maintenance rehearsal

  • Keeps information in working memory (repeat, repeat, repeat)

• Chunking

  • Grouping

• Mnemonics

  • Memory aids

• Serial position effect (Primacy-recency effect)

  • We usually remember first and last things

Long-Term Memory

• Relatively permanent

• Limitless!

• Knowledge, skills, experiences

Phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about object’s appearance and location in space

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Encoding - shallow processing and deep processing

shallow processing: maintenance rehearsal

deep processing: elaborative rehearsal

Chunking

organzing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Implicit verses Explicit memories

• Implicit memory (nondeclarative/procedural memory)

  • Independent of conscious recollection (unconscious in the cerebellum)

  • Includes procedural memory

    • example : Clive Wearing’s ability to play piano

• Explicit memory (declarative memory)

  • Facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

  • Hippocampus

  • Semantic memories and episodic memories

Hierarchies

Memory Tricks

Mnemonic devices —> memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Method of Loci —> memory aid in association of something with a location

Spacing Effect (distributed practice)

rehearsal —> practicing something outloud can help with memory aid

Testing Effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also regerred to a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Semantic Memory (hippocampus) and Episodic Memory (limbic system)

Semantic and episodic memories are both types of declarative memory, but they serve different purposes and rely on different brain regions.

• Semantic memory, involving facts and general knowledge, is primarily stored in the neocortex,

• Episodic memory, involving personal experiences and specific events, is formed and stored in the hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobe structures within the limbic system. 

Brain Parts Responsible for Memory

State-Dependent Memory

You recall information more easily when you are in the same physiological or emotional state (mood congruent) or physical setting (context) you were when you originally encoded the info

Memory consolidation

the process by which newly formed memories, initially stored in the hippocampus, are transformed into more stable, long-term memories.

• This involves strengthening memory traces, making them resistant to interference, and integrating them into pre-existing memory networks, often occurring during sleep

Flashbulb Memories

• A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

  • Amygdala

Retrieval

Retrieval cues: the best retrieval cues come from associations we form when we encode a memory (little bits of information like passwords and open memories)

Context

State Dependent: when we learn in one state it may be more early recalled when we are again in that state (state of excitement or tension)

Serial Position (primacy effect vs. recency effect)

Priming (associations): the activation often unconsciously, of a particular associations in memory

Serial Position (primacy effect vs. recency effect)

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recent effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect)

Mood Congruent Memory (state-dependent)

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Encoding specificity principle

memory recall is most effective when the conditions present during encoding (learning) are similar to the conditions present during retrieval (recall)

• the more closely the encoding and retrieval contexts match, the better the memory retrieval will be

Interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involved mixing the study of different topics

• studying by mixing together topics rather than blocking them out in groups

Anterograde amnesia vs. retrograde amnesia

anterograde magnesia —> an inability to form new memories (more common)

retrograde amnesia —> an inability to remember information from one’s past

Encoding failure

the inability to properly store information in long-term memory, leading to a later inability to recall it

• This happens when the brain fails to create a memory link because information was not properly encoded, or when encoding was disrupted by factors like inattention or interference

Storage decay

the weakening or fading of memories

Forgetting Curve—Ebbinghaus

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

Interference (proactive and retroactive)

• Blocking of a memory by a previous or subsequent memory

  • Proactive interference: old memory blocks a new memory

  • Retroactive interference: New memory blocks an earlier memory

Retrieval failure

a type of forgetting where information, though stored in long-term memory, cannot be accessed or retrieved when needed

• This happens due to the absence of sufficient retrieval cues or the interference of other information. 

Repression (Freud)

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety—arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Confabulation and Eyewitness Testimony (Loftus)

Reconstructed false memory is caused by “source amnesia,” framing the question and “misinformation effect” (occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information)

• Several factors can influence the accuracy of eyewitness memory, including stress, time elapsed, misleading information, and suggestive questioning —> we automatically replace orginal info with new info rather than what's the truth

Deja Vu

the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before”

• cues from current familiarity of a situation may unconsoiusly trigger retrieval of an earlier experience