Psychology KA4 notes

Wundt

Considered the father of psychology, he established the first laboratory for experimental psychology.

Introspection

A method used by Wundt where trained observers reported their conscious thoughts after being presented with a stimulus.

Scientific method

A systematic way of learning about the world through observation, experimentation, and analysis.

Classical conditioning

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired, leading to a response originally produced by one stimulus.

Operant conditioning

A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.

Positive reinforcement

The addition of a rewarding stimulus following a desired behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Negative reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus as a consequence of a desired behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior recurring.

Punishment

An unpleasant consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Social learning theory

The theory that people learn behaviors through observation and imitation of others.

Mediational processes

Cognitive processes that occur between stimulus and response, including attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information, influencing how we understand the world.

Biological approach

An approach in psychology that focuses on the physical and biological processes influencing behavior.

Genotype

An individual's genetic makeup.

Phenotype

The physical and psychological expression of an individual's genotype.

Evolution

The process through which species change over time through natural selection.

Cognitive neuroscience

The study of how brain structures and functions relate to cognitive processes.

Id, ego, superego

Freud's structural model of the psyche where the id is the primal part, the ego is the rational part, and the superego is the moral compass.

Defence mechanisms

Unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with reality and maintain self-image.

Self-actualisation

The realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potential, regarded as a fundamental drive of humans.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

A framework that categorizes human needs into a five-tier model, from basic to advanced.

Statistical infrequency

A definition of abnormality based on behaviors that are rare or statistically unusual.

Deviation from social norms

A definition of abnormality that classifies behaviors that violate societal expectations as abnormal.

Failure to function adequately

A definition of abnormality that describes an inability to cope with everyday life as indicative of mental disorder.

Deviation from ideal mental health

A definition of abnormality focusing on the absence of characteristics considered essential for optimal mental health.

Phobia

An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity.

Two-process model

A behavioral approach to explaining phobias that states they are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

Systematic desensitisation

A behavioral therapeutic technique used to reduce anxiety by gradually exposing a person to a feared object or context.

Flooding

A treatment technique for phobias where the patient is exposed to the feared object or situation in an intense and immersive way.

Laboratory experiment

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the independent variable.

Field experiment

An experiment conducted in a natural setting, where the researcher manipulates the independent variable.

Natural experiment

An experiment in which the independent variable occurs naturally and is not manipulated by the researcher.

Quasi-experiment

An experiment where the researcher studies the effect of naturally occurring independent variables.

Covert observation

An observational study where participants are unaware they are being observed.

Overt observation

An observational study where participants know they are being observed.

Structured interview

An interview with a set format where the same questions are asked to every participant.

Unstructured interview

An interview without a fixed format, allowing for open-ended responses and follow-up questions.

Random sampling

A selection method ensuring that every individual in a population has an equal chance of being selected.

Stratified sampling

A sampling method that reflects the diversity of the population by ensuring subgroups are proportionately represented.

Pilot study

A small scale preliminary test conducted to evaluate the feasibility, time, cost, and adverse events involved in a research study.

Bias

Systematic error introduced into sampling or testing that skews the results.

Critical thinking

The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue to form a judgment.

Data analysis

The process of systematically applying statistical or logical techniques to describe and evaluate data.

Thematic analysis

A method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within qualitative data.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together.

Case study

An in-depth study of an individual or group, focusing on qualitative analysis.

Inferential statistics

Statistical methods that allow researchers to make conclusions about a population based on sample data.

Ethics in psychology

Moral principles that guide researchers in the conduct of their studies, ensuring participant welfare.

Demand characteristics

Cues in an experiment that may inform participants of the expected results, potentially biasing their responses.

Efficacy

The ability to produce a desired or intended result of a treatment or intervention.

Empirical evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation that can be verified.

Control variables

Factors that are kept constant to ensure that any observed changes are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Operationalisation

The process of defining measurement criteria for variables to ensure clarity and testability.

Descriptive statistics

Statistical methods used to summarize and describe the main features of a data set.

Central tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution of scores.

Dispersion

A measure of how spread out a set of data points is.

Peer review

The process by which researchers evaluate each other’s work before it is published.

Randomisation

The process of assigning participants to conditions in such a way that every participant has an equal chance of being in any group.

Counterbalancing

A technique used in within-subjects designs to control for the order effects by varying the order of conditions.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of a research study or measurement tool.

Falsifiability

The principle that a theory or hypothesis must be able to be disproven through evidence.

Causation

The relationship between cause and effect.

Findings

The results obtained from a research study after data analysis.

Statistical significance

A determination that results are not likely to have occurred by chance, typically indicated by a p-value.

Hypothesis testing

A statistical method for testing a hypothesis about a parameter in a population based on sample data.

Longitudinal study

A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods.

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies.

Quantitative data

Numerical data that can be measured and compared.

Qualitative data

Non-numerical data that provides descriptive information.

Self-report measures

Methods for obtaining data where respondents provide information about their own thoughts and behaviors.

Ethical considerations

Guidelines for conducting research to ensure the protection of participants.

Informed consent

The process of ensuring that participants understand and agree to the terms of the study before taking part.

Anonymity

The practice of keeping a participant's identity confidential.

Confidentiality

The principle of keeping participant information private.

Measurement scale

The rules for assigning numbers to objects in order to represent attributes.

Level of measurement

The type of scale on which data can be classified: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.

Nominal scale

A measurement scale that categorizes data without a specific order.

Ordinal scale

A measurement scale that ranks data in a specific order but does not specify the distance between ranks.

Interval scale

A measurement scale that shows not only rank order but also equal distances between values.

Ratio scale

A measurement scale with a true zero point, allowing for the comparison of absolute magnitudes.

Statistical test

A formal procedure for determining whether the observed data deviates from the expected data.

Effect size

A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Sample size

The number of participants in a research study, which can affect the validity and generalisability of results.

Qualitative analysis

The process of examining non-numeric data to identify patterns and themes.

Quantitative analysis

The process of analyzing numeric data to test hypotheses and examine relationships.

Data coding

The process of categorizing qualitative data to facilitate analysis.

Variable

Any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted.

Extraneous variable

Any variable other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable.

Confounding variable

A variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables, causing a spurious association.

Psychological assessment

The use of tests and measures to evaluate individuals' mental health and behavioral functioning.

Field observation

The process of observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Controlled observation

An observational study conducted in a structured environment where conditions are managed.

Behavioural assessment

A method for observing and measuring behavior in a specific environment.

Therapeutic relationship

The professional relationship between a therapist and client, which affects treatment outcomes.