Intro to Psych Unit 1

Mental processes include . . .

Cognitions (thoughts), feelings (affect), states of consciousness

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality, which attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions, the "talking cure"

Talking cure

a therapy in the form of a discussion of psychological distress with a trained professional, leading to the elimination of distressing symptoms

John B Watson

founder of behaviorism

Behaviorism

A scientific approach to the study of behavior that emphasizes the relationship between environmental events and an organism's behavior (stimulus -> response)

Humanistic Psychology

An approach to psychology that emphasizes the role of free choice and our ability to make conscious, rational decisions about how we live our lives

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

Margaret Washburn

first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

Mary Whiton Calkins

American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association

Francis Cecil Summer

first African American to earn a PhD in psychology, father of African American psychology

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

Computational psychology

Uses theoretical analysis, computer science, and mathematical modeling to understand how the brain and nervous system function, develop, and their cognitive processes. It often involves creating models and simulations to study biological processes and behaviors.

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Cultural psychology

the study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members

Clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

Health psychology

the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health

Descriptions

perceivable information

Goals of psychology

describe, explain, predict, control

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Theory

A scientific theory is a logical explanation for the relevant data or facts scientists have observed regarding certain phenomena

Hypothesis

A statement that proposes the existence of a relationship between variables; typically, as a tentative explanation for cause and effect

Variables

anything that varies

Operational definitions

specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study

Sample

a subset of the population

Representative sample

A sample in which critical subgroups are represented according to their incidence in the larger population that is being studied

Random sample

A sample group of a larger population that is selected by randomization procedures

Convenience sample

a form of nonprobability sample using respondents who are convenient or readily accessible to the researcher—for example, employees, friends, or relatives

W.E.I.R.D

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic (96% of research comes from WEIRD countries)

Case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Observational method

the technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior

Natural observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Observer bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Correlational Method

a research procedure used to determine how much events or characteristics vary along with each other

Coefficient of correlation

a statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 that indicates the direction and degree of correlation

3 key elements of experiments

manipulation of an independent variable and measure of the outcome or dependent variable, random assignment, control over the research environment

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Quasi-experiments

comparisons of groups that differ in exposure to a variable of interest that cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons

Statistics

Mathematical methods for describing and interpreting data

Measure of central tendency

mean, median, mode

Descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Variability

in a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean

Normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

Measure of variability

A measure that indicates whether distribution scores are clustered closely around their average or widely spread out

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Inferential statistics

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Scientific method

careful observation of events in the world, the formation of predictions based on these observations, and the testing of these predictions by the manipulation of variables and systematic observation

Behavior

The observable actions by which an organism adjusts to its environment

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Behavioral Neuroscience

Everything psychological is simultaneously biological

Nervous system

Carries information to and from different parts of the body

3 Basic Types of Neurons

Sensory, Motor, and Interneurons

Sensory Neurons

Messages from sensory receptors to central nervous system

Motor Neurons

Carry messages from central nervous system to muscles

Interneurons

Intermediary between sensory and motor neurons

How Neurons Communicate

Chemical and electrical activity

Chemical activity

presynaptic neuron -> postsynaptic neuron, neurotransmitters

Presynaptic neuron

conducts impulses toward the synapse

Postsynaptic neuron

transmits impulses away from the synapse

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Electrical Activity

resting potential and action potential

Resting Potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Glial Cells

Support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes, and manufacturing myelin

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that contributes to the regulation of mood, appetite, and sleep.

Dopamime

A neurotransmitter involved in control of movement and sensations of pleasure

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in muscle movement, arousal, attention, learning, and memory.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are involved in pleasure and reward.

Norephinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and mood

GABA

A neurotransmitter involved in sleep and inhibits movement

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, formation, nervous system development, and synaptic plasticity