Final Exam - HIST 1020 - Gaddis

Atlantic world

• Nations bordering the Atlantic Ocean and their interactions

• Connected by triangle trade (slave trade, sugar/tobacco cotton, and textile goods/rum)

• World exchange of culture, ideas, and revolutions

popular sovereignty

• The idea that political power comes from and depends on the people

• Came from the work of Enlightenment figures (particularly Locke)

• Dependent on identity with mass of people sharing common language and history

• The root of thinking of people with a common culture as a nation

free trade

• The idea that:

- There should be no tariffs (taxes), quotas, or fees in trade

- Markets should be unregulated by governments

- Free labor (i.e. labor that is not enslaved) should be the basis of the economy

• These tenets would result in less exploitative, more just society

• Descended from Enlightenment thinkers, most clearly Adam Smith

Universal laws

• Concepts and ideas that explained and applies to all mankind

• Looking for a basis of truth outside religion alone

Revolutionary rhetoric

• Free trade, popular sovereignty, and other ideas were the ideological basis of Atlantic world revolutions

• Translated from philosophical ideas to practical plans by more ordinary people

the Enlightenment

• Began with the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th century

• Adopted in various European countries in 18th century as new approach to understanding and impacting society

• Thinkers like John Locke, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Adam smith, Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• Conceptualized as a distrust in existing institutions and conventions

• Formulated beliefs that society should be governed by reason

• Believed in equality of all mankind (because all mankind possessed reason)

• Searching for universal laws to explain mankind

the Three Estates

1. Clergy

2. Nobility

3. The people

Declaration of Independence

• Signed in July 1776

• Declared the United States of America a free state from British rule

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• Published in August 1789

• French revolutionary principles

three forms of American colonial resistance

1. Legislative resistance (colonial elites)

2. Economic resistance (middle class colonial merchants)

3. Popular protest (working class and common people)

Revolution from below

Elites of Spanish/Portuguese colonies terrified by the revolution in Haiti and the possibility of revolution occurring underneath them

Haiti's impact

• Inspired terror across the Atlantic world

- Fear of slave insurrection

- Fear of revolt and control by lowest members of society

• Ironically, increased slavery elsewhere

- Other slave colonies (Cuba) ramped up sugar production

- French defeat led to sale of Louisiana Territory to Americans and expansion of slavery there

Napoleonic Code

• Adopted in 1799 when Napoleon overthrows the government

• A system of civil laws established for France by Napoleon

Shay's rebellion

• Massachusetts farmers were restricted by bad economy (many were deeply in debt)

• State supported creditors over farmers

• Farmers, led by Shays, restricted access to courts to prevent foreclosures

• Massachusetts militia violently ended revolt (leaders initially sentenced to execution, later pardoned)

• Exposes fault lines over who government should support, its basic functions and powers

Bill of Rights

• Passed in 1791 (after much debate)

• 10 amendments to original constitution

• Omitted:

- Women

- Enslaved people

- Non-property holders

• 3/5 compromise on slavery

Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen

• Written by Olympia De Gouges

• Demanded the right for women to bear arms to support the French Revolution

Commodification

• The commodification of abolitionist iconography was part of shift in revolutionary ideology

• Turning goods, services, ideas, or people into objects of trade (plates, necklaces, etc.)

German Coast uprising

• During Haitian revolution, Deslondes family fled the island

- brought their enslaved people with them

- moved to Louisiana

• Charles Deslondes among slaves brought

- inspired by Haitian revolution

• January 8, 1811

- 500 enslaved people overthrow masters

- begin march toward new Orleans

• After 3 days, revolution is put down by militia and federal troops

- Aftermath: leaders executed, heads put on pikes along river, stretching 60 miles

• Revolt, despite failure, directly inspired by revolutionary principles

Nat Turner's uprising

• Nat Turner (enslaved religious leader)

- Southampton County, Virginia

• Turner credited visions from god with idea for attack

• In August, 1831 he and other enslaved people attacked slaveholders

- Killed around 60 before being subdued

• Aftermath: spread fear throughout South

- More restrictive laws around literacy, travel, etc. passed for slaves

freedom

• Britain: trade outlawed, 1807. Britain polices African waters to stop traders; slavery abolished 1838

• America: trade outlawed, 1808. Slavery abolished and slaves emancipated, 1865.

• Chile: life long slavery outlawed, 1811

• France: re-instituted in the colonies in 1802; abolished 1848

• Brazil: abolishes slavery, 1888

Abolitionism and individual revolution

• Began as popular movement in late 18th/early 19th century

- In Britain, spread to the U.S.

• Put pressure on governments to end slavery

• Never a large group of people

- Initially led by elite white people

- Eventually by former slaves

- A smaller, less popular revolution

- Put revolution back into hands of individuals, away from government

bourgeoise

• A new class of workers

- Accountants, lawyers, bankers, etc

• Rose in response to trade needs

• Bridged gap between old, established, unchangeable class lines and working class

• Undermined set class statuses

local

• Global trade becomes commonplace

• Small, out of the way places linked to larger networks

• Culture of small places linked to the world

• Local and global become inextricable

the commons

Land owned by the nobility for public community use

environmental history

• The study of how humans have interacted with the environment

• How humans impacted the natural world

• How the natural world impacted humans

• "Nature" as an active player in defining human history

- Can think of nature as almost a character

anthropocene

Scientific geological term: the period during which human activity has been/is being the dominant influence on climate and the environment

Industrious Revolution

• Changes in the intensity, variety, and type of work

• More women and children working outside of home

• More work for everyone

- Instead of leisure time

• Leisure and recreation given up in favor of buying power (consumption of goods)

economic, social, and environmental industrial revolution

Economic transformation

• Most prominent example: textile industry

- Far reaching connections--India, Argentina, New Zealand, United States, Britain, etc.

• Impacted virtually every existing industry (form of work)

• Intensified shift away from primarily agrarian society

• Created fundamentally new types of industries and jobs

• Changes national economies

Environmental transformation

• Changes on two levels

- Way people interacted with land

- Land itself

• Extraction

- For energy

- For raw materials

- For building and settlement

• Anthropocene age

Social transformation

• Consumption

- Access to and use of goods

• Labor

- Intensification of labor

- Different types of labor

• Migration and living patterns

artisanal process

A production process characterized by minimal automation, little division of labor, and a small number of highly skilled craftsman as opposed to a larger, less-trained traditional workforce

mechanical process

• Key in the industrialization of the textile industry

• Rise of new technologies such as steam power and the spinning mule

material culture

• The study of material objects from the past

- As small as a thimble, as big as a city

• Study of how people viewed, used, and valued objects in everyday life

• Visual culture

- Subset of material culture focused on visual objects (paintings, photographs)

- Same set of standards

• Connecting individual objects to bigger histories and patterns

liberalism

• As a part of the Atlantic Revolutions

- To a lesser extent Industrial Revolution

- The political ideology resulting from Revolutionary Rhetoric

- A form and theory of governance as much as ideology

• Nothing to do with contemporary political affiliations

• Characterized by

- Expanded civil liberties

- Advocating for economic freedom

• Used by 19th century powers as a justification for colonial expansion, despite contradiction of principles

colonization

Process of cultural and military conquest of one country or region by another power

Opium War

• 1839-1841

• British come with military and bombard Canton, sail upriver where they weren't legally allowed to go before

• British weaponry is more advanced and many Chinese are killed

• Ended by Treaty of Nanjing (1842)

- Expanded British power in China and granted:

1. five treaty ports for trade

2. the island of Hong Kong

3. Chinese repayment of British costs for Opium War

- Later treaties gave these and other powers to other European and American

- Immunity from chinese laws

East India Company

• Founded in 1644

• Company for import and export with East Indies

• Grew to have great economic and political power in India and elsewhere

theocracy

A government controlled by a religion/religious leaders

Mfecane Movement

• Movement in southern Africa

• Name comes from Zulu for "the crushing"

• Context: trade and intervention from Portuguese, other Europeans

- Disruption of traditional social order

- Overpopulation and demand for land

• Context: rule dominated by small tribes and families

- Zulu one such group (Bantu-speaking people)

Islamic revitalization

• Response to perception of Western rule

- In governing models

- In trade and economics

• Looked to Islamic past

- Less for precedents than for guidance

- Basing on Islamic law

- Desire for more religious government

- Desire for purer religion

Wahhabism

• A call for return to "pure" Islam

• Inspired by

- Perception of lax religious practices among Muslims

- Fears about new economy (global trade and industrialism)

- New intellectual ideas

Millenarian revolt

Group or movement in a coming major transformation of society, after which all things will be changed

Indian Rebellion of 1857

•1857: rumor that new rifle cartridges lubricated with animal fat

- Religious crisis for Indian soldiers serving British (sepoys)

- 270,000 sepoys to 40,000 native British soldiers

- Sepoys take Delhi, peasants all over country join

• Rebellion viciously put down, 1858

• Queen Victoria makes reforms

- Strips EIC of rule

- Transfers rule of India to crown

• Concessions based on prevailing liberalism

- Religious toleration

- Indian participation in government

• Legacy of rebellion persists

Radicalism

• Broad category with various affiliations

• Real change only comes from addressing root of problems and changes

• Entirely reformulating government, politics, economy, around new principles

• Spread out of dissatisfaction with ends of revolutions

• Differences between radicalism and liberalism

Proletarian

A member of the working class, especially a farmer or factory worker.

Labor Theory of Value

The belief that all value in produced goods is derived from labor

Taiping War

• 1851-1864

• Civil war between the Qing Dynasty and the Taipings

• Led by China's prophetic leader, Hong Xiuquan

• Repudiates old religions as not responsive to crisis of modern life

• Follower believe that:

- Manchus (Cines rulers) are demons to conquer (standing between heaven on earth)

- No alcohol, opium, intoxicants

- Women enlist in military

- Victory would mean dividing land between al

• Was a millenarian revolt

Tecumseh

• Brother of Shawnee Prophet

• After 1805 begins traveling

- First preaching message of prophet Great Lakes to Gulf Coast

• Advocated Pan-Indian unity

• Seen as growing threat by U.S. government

Tenskwatawa

• Early life: rootless, without purpose

• Begins receiving visions

- Heaven with Shawnee traditional practices

• Visions lead to preaching changes

- No alcohol

- No Euro-American trade goods

• Back to traditional hunting practices

• Quickly becomes Shawnee Prophet

- Message adopted, spreads to other nations

Pan Indian Unity

All tribes united as one people (new concept) as an effort to resistance to colonization

Nationalism

The loyalty and devotion to the interests and culture of one's nation

Imperialism

The extension of a nation's power over other lands

Manifest Destiny

The belief that the United States was destined by God and had the right to to extend its boundaries from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean

3 factors of European unification

1. Common language, powerful states

2. Strong, conservative leadership

3. Shared culture

Reasons for colonization of Africa

Economic gain

• African possessed natural resources (Ivory, Rubber, Other unknown goods)

• Long history of European exploitation (Slavery, Africa in the European imagination)

Desire for exploration

• Explorers and missionaries visit

- David Livingstone (1813-1873)

- Henry Morton Stanley (1841-1904)

- Dispatches and accounts of adventure

- New "discoveries"

• Undiscovered Africa filled need for expansion

Civilizing mission

• Desire to convert to Christianity

- Belief in Christian principles as foundation of civilization

- Belief other peoples uncivilized

• Approach (Missionaries, Work, Capitalism, Consumption)

Berlin Conference, 1884-1885

• Meeting of European imperial powers about Africa

- Aim to avoid conflicts over territory

• Results

- Sets out conditions for acquiring territories in Africa

- Made Congo and Niger rivers international

- Made Congo Basin neutral territory

•Recognized Belgian power in Congo

King Leopold II

King of the Belgians and founder/owner of the Congo Free State, a charitable enterprise that was run into a pure profit opprotunity.

Red Rubber system

• Labor laws made to maximize profit in the Congo

• Quotas of rubber, ivory for each village

- As scarcer, villagers went further and further afield

• Laws enforced by Force Publique--private army who took slaves, etc

• Punishments and impacts

- Taking women and children hostage to compel quotas

- Severing hands

- Hard work, hard travel exposed to diseases

• As many as 10 million (of pre-colonial 20 million population) killed

The culture of imperialism

• Europeans and Americans believed they created modern culture

- Social Darwinism

- Other peoples (particularly Africans) they believed to not be evolved

• Picturing imperialism

- Drawing on European imagination of Africa

- Portrayed as primitive, etc.

• Imperial imagery

- Everyday reminder of imperial conquest

• Just in cigarette brands alone: Royal Navy (pictures), Grand Fleet, Fighter, Admiral

• Need to grow the population

- To outstrip growth in colonized countries

- Ideal of manliness

--- British MP, 1905 "Empire cannot be built on rickety and flat-chested citizens"

--- Promoted through art, literature--boys reading about exotic locals, daring adventures

- Final imperial project: breed enough citizens to overspread the world

• Not restricted to Africa

- Orientalism (Viewing other regions as exotic, outside of modern world)

Social Darwinism

• The theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals.

- It was used to justify political conservatism, imperialism, and racism and to discourage intervention and reform.

- Seen being applied to the imperial conquest of Africa

The 2nd industrial revolution

1. New technologies

2. New products

3. New processes

Fordism

• System of industrial manufacturing (20th century)

- From Henry Ford

• Tenets

- Standardization of product

- Use of assembly lines

- Workers paid living wages (in order to be able to buy products they make)

- Example: Ford Model T

Meiji Restoration

• 1868: reformers overtake government

- Emperor Mutsuhito

- Aim: restore country to past greatness (nationalist sentiment)

Self-strengthening movement

• Chinese economic reform

- Led by reformist bureaucrats

- Adopting Western technology and skills

- New economic ventures (shipyards, coal mines, steamship company, schools)

• Despite reforms, conservative elements resistant to changes (big ideas but little actual change)

The Columbian Exposition

• 1893 Chicago World's Fair (honor Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492)

• "White City Display"

- Vision of the perfect city

- Gleaming, white, modern

- Mixture of old forms, new technology

City Beautiful movement

• Sparked by The Columbian Exposition

- Ideal of the city

- Parks, beautiful buildings

- City as inspirational

- Instilling civic pride, virtue

The Boxer Uprising

• Post Sino-Japanese war outside powers assert influence

- Specific spheres of influence for Britain, France, Germany , Russia, America

• Begin with peasantry

- Like Taiping Rebellion

- Rebuke of missionary influence

- Support of Qing dynasty

- Martial arts groups (Boxers) calling for end of Western/Christian privileges

- Belief in invulnerability to weapons--spiritual armor

• Flourishes in poor areas

- Hard hit by drought of 1898

• Young men--fighters. Clad in red

- Women (Red Lanterns)

• Worked to counteract fear of western female influence

• 1900: Qing troops clash with Boxers

- Qing reverse course, side with Boxers use anti-Western sentiment of Boxers to maintain power

- Western powers intervene, stop uprising

- Demand huge war costs

• Impact: strong anti-Western current, loyalty to Qing

The "Woman Question"

How to make women equal citizens?

• History

- Olympe de Gouges

- Justification for imperialism (poor treatment of women)

• Status, end of 19th century

- No country has equal opportunities for women

- Growing awareness of inequality

- Burdens of imperial/industrial economies

- Western countries: "separate spheres" breaking down

Modernism

• An artistic, scientific, intellectual, cultural movement

• Breaking ties with old traditions

- In recognition of changing world

- Questioning all old ideas and beliefs

• Looking to "primitive" ideas for inspiration and wisdom

• Ex. artistic modernism

- Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon(1907)

- Inspired by African masks exhibited in Paris

- How is perspective different? Subject? Composition?

• Scientific modernism

- Toward probability rather than certainty

- Undermining Enlightenment claims to total knowledge

--- Paradoxically, belief that all things can be discovered, classified

• Some key figures

- Albert Einstein (rethinking physics)

- Gustave Le Bon (crowd theory--explaining popular movements)

- Sigmund Freud

• Probing the subconscious

• Humans propelled by sexual longings, childhood traumas, etc.

Central Powers

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire

Allied Powers

Britain, France, and Russia (and later Italy)

Total War

• All aspects of society and economy must contribute to war

- Industrial output

- Conscription

- Technological innovation

• Emerges in WWI Germany

The Russian Revolution

The fall of the Romanovs

• Wartime scarcity worsened economic and social problems

- Food shortages

- Poor wages and hours

- Almost 5 million soldiers killed, captured, missing

• Early 1917 riots in St. Petersburg

- No full army to stop them

- Rioters took over

- Nicholas II abdicates

• Provisional government formed

- Made up of unelected officials and soviets (workers councils)

The rise of the Bolsheviks

• Provisional government continued hated war

• October: Bolsheviks emerged

• Bolsheviks in power

- Hold election (40 million vote)

Bolsheviks

• Emerged in October

- Left wing socialists

- Led by Trotsky, Lenin

- Promised to end war, uphold peasant land seizures

- Claimed power in name of the soviets (ended "bourgeois revolution")

• Hold largest election in history with a record 40 million votes

14 Points

• President Woodrow Wilson's plan to end WWI, for organizing post WWI Europe, and for avoiding future wars

• Statement of principles for peace used at the Versailles conference of 1919 to propose treaties

• Big Points:

- Self-determination of nations

- League of Nations

Mass culture

• Emerges out of war mobilization efforts

- Propaganda--lectures, newspapers, music, theater

- Broader audience for cultural production

• Tenets of postwar mass culture

- Departs from elite culture

--- Depends on working class taste

- Relies on new technologies

--- Film and radio

The Great Depression

• Postwar economy

- Sinking prices for industrial goods

- European debt to American creditors

• Panic: October 1929, American creditors call in loans

- Financial institution failures result

--- Starting in Europe and spreading

• Countries wanted to protect economy, established tariffs

- Other countries responded in kind

- Virtually stopped international trade

- Forced companies into shutting down, sometimes permanently

--- Workers laid off by the millions

New Deal

• Under President Franklin Delano Roosevelt

• Expands scope and intervention of government

• Work and direct aid programs

• Radical seeming solutions in service of saving capitalism

Authoritarian regimes

• Rejection of parliamentary rule

• Rule by military force and violence

- Violence and terror in remaking sociopolitical order

• Dominated by leader's cult of personality

• Mass organizations for state purpose

- Single, official mass political parties

- Hitler Youth, Soviet Communist Youth League, Italian youth squads

Anticolonialsim

• Dominant new mode of resistance

• Generally marked by nationalism

- Differing forms

- Trying to overcome contradictions of European democratic liberalism

Mohandas K. Gandhi

• Born 1869, coastal province Kathiawar

- Amid increasing British control of India

• Goes to England to study law as young man

• Spends bulk of his career (21 years) in S. Africa

- Working on civil rights issues for Indian immigrants

Nonviolent resistance

• Individual resistance as part of collective

• Self-discipline and non-participation in colonial economy and governance

- Boycott of British goods

- Refuse to send children to British schools

- Refuse to pay taxes

May 4th movement

• 1919: students in May 4th movement protested granting of Japanese control over German concessions in Treaty of Versailles

- Spreads to workers and merchants

- Boycotts of Japanese goods

- Growing coalition of workers, students, others

- Start of alliance (under Sun Yat-sen) with Soviets

Chiang Kai-shek

• 1926 Chiang Kai-shek seizes control of Guomindang

- After Sun Yat-sen's death

- Military campaign to unify country

- New capital in Nanjing

• New government (Nationalist)

- Broke with Soviets and Chinese Communists

- Based on diverse principles

--- Fascist military governance

--- Confucian principles

--- Social Darwinism

--- Instill discipline, moral purpose for a unified citizenry

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

• Led secular re-ordering of Turkish state

- Became authoritarian republic

- Western calendar, civil code, clothes, script, etc

• Name conferred by assembly--"father of the Turks"

Selling the war

• Much more heavily radicalized propaganda

- Explicitly equating the enemy with racist troupes

- Characterized as less than human/monstrous

• Urges people to participate in the war from a moral dimension (as a soldier, homemaker, etc.)

- Not just good for the nation, but the morally right and morally obligated thing to do

(remember the posters)

The Holocaust

The industrialization of death

• Systematic campaign of execution by Germans

- Idea of purifying the state

--- Nationalism taken to its extremes

--- Use of industrial processes

• statistics on the Holocaust:

- 6 million Jews

- ~5+ million Non-Jewish Soviet civilian

- ~1.8 million Non-Jewish Polish civilians

- ~200,000 Roma (Gypsy)

- 200,000 mentally ill or physically disabled

- 70,000 repeat criminal offenders

- ~5,000 war criminals

- ~3,000-9,000 homosexuals

- ~2,000 Jehovah's Witnesses

Hiroshima

• August 6, 1945

• first atomic bomb "Little Boy" is dropped on Japan

- combined with the bombing of Nagasaki, brings about the end of WWII

Nagasaki

• August 9, 1945

• second atomic bomb "Fat Man" is dropped on Japan

- combined with the bombing of Hiroshima, brings about the end of WWII

Three worlds

• First World America

• Second World Russia

• Third World developing countries

Cold War

worldwide rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

• 1949 military alliance

• Capitalist countries

• N. America, Western Europe

• Marshall Plan

Warsaw Pact

• 1955 military alliance

• Response to NATO

• Communist countries (USSR and E. Europe)

Iron Curtain

• Europe divided into blocs of influence

• Originally symbolic--later materialized (fences, walls)

• Keeps countries from contact

• Germany divided

- West Germany (Federal Republic--capitalist)

- East Germany (German Democratic Republic--communist)

- Berlin Wall

--- Dividing city

--- Becomes main symbol of Cold War

Redlining

• Drawing of lines on a map to identify areas in which banks will refuse to loan money

• Denying loans in certain areas or neighborhoods due to race, religion, sex, familial status, or a disability (minorities)

Red Scare

• Extreme fear and paranoia of Communism

• Began in government

- Moved to entertainment, all aspects of society

• Led by Senator Joseph McCarthy

• Extreme persecutions of suspected Communists

Korean War

• 1950-1953

• N. Korea invades S. Korea

- Soviet, Chinese (Communist) and Americans involved

- Becomes proxy war for capitalist/communist ideological struggle

- Result: Korea divided

--- Extending capitalist/communist divisions to Asia

--- Extending battlefield of American anti-Communism

Decolonization

The process by which colonies gained their independence from the imperial European powers after WWII

• Patterns of decolonization:

- Civil war

- Wars of independence

- Negotiated independence

- Incomplete decolonization

Mao Zedong

• Emerges as leader of Chinese Communist Party during the Long March (1934)

• Myths and legends of the march

People's Republic of China (PRC)

Communists come to power

• After WWII, hostilities between Nationalists and Communists resume

- Nationalists and CSK: backed by U.S.

--- Held cities

--- Struggling to regain power after Japanese fight

- Communists and Mao

--- Backed by Soviets

--- Support in countryside

• 1946-1949: open civil war

• 1949: communists prevail

- CSK and followers go to Taiwan

- October: Mao declares founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC)

Partition

• August 14, 1947: Pakistan gets independence

- Muslim state

• August 15, 1947: India gets independence

- Hindu state

• Sparks mass migration

- 12-15 million people

- Hindus and Sikhs toward India, Muslims toward Pakistan

• Violence and atrocities

- Sectarian violence

- Around 1,000,000 killed

- Gandhi fasts in protest

Zionism

• A movement founded in the 1890s to promote the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

- Jewish self-determination requires relocation to place of origin

- European movement

- Britain promised Jewish homeland in WWI (Also to Arabs)

- Jews started settling--clashes with Arabs

• Post-WWII

- Enormous demand (and sympathy) for homeland

- United Nations partitions Palestine (Arab and Jewish territories)

- British control in Palestine expires: Israel declares itself independent state