philo - virtue ethics

what is VIRTUE ETHICS?

balance of deontological and teleological decision making

• HYBRID theory

• new way of making moral decisions

what are VIRTUES?

morally good characteristics

CONTEXT of VE

based on ancient greek ‘heroic’ society

• judged on deeds that make them more heroid

• ‘you are what you do’

• e.g. Theseus (hero) slayed the minotaur

TELEOLOGICAL element of VE

all humans want to bring about good consequences and eudaimonia (ultimate happiness through good deeds)

how do people PRACTICE being a virtuous person

• golden mean = balance of two extremes to follow middle path

• following a virtuous teacher who performs virtuous actions and is therefore a morally good person

where do actions come from?

characteristics that are part of out telos (end)

the two extremes and middle ground of VE

ABSTINENCE - having too little of a characterustic

MODERTION = just right

EXCESS = having too much of a characteristic

EXAMPLES of characteristics

GENEROSITY - means that someone hould freely and willingly give and spend money on others

• vice of abstinence is ILLIBERALITY - the unwillingness to share with others

• vice of excess is PRODIGALITY - being wasteful and focused one one’s pleasure

RIGHT AMBITION - having a just and good purpose to ones actions

• vice of abstinence is WANT OF AMBITION - being unmotivated and lacking the ambition to achieve

• vice of excess is OVER AMBITION - person seeks to put self over others

WITTINESS - witty, funny and charming

• vice of abstinence is BORISHNESS - being boring

• vice of excess is BUFFOONARY - acting the fool to please others

what would happen if everyone in society perfected the 12 virtues?

society would FLOURISH

focused on interaction and relationships rather than individualism

will become HABITUAL

relationship between goodness and function

FUNCTION - in greek ergon, meaning work or accomplishment

e.g. a good knife is one that works well and serves its purpose

• sharp blade

• handle engineered for best grip

• cuts well

the soul according to aristotle

SOUL - form or blueprint of the body, so can be attributed to plants, animals and humans

• forms a ‘nested’ hierarchy

HIERARCHY - system in which the parts/ members are ranked according to status or authority

• aristotle refers to hierarchy of souls

the SOUL and its CHARACTERISTICS

PLANTS

• vegetative

• characterised by nutrition and growth

ANIMALS

• sensitive

• c by nutrition and growth, movement, sense perception, low level thought

HUMANS

• rational

• c by nutrition and growth, movement, sense perception and reason

EUDAIMONIA in relation to virtues

the ability of the soul in accord with virtue, and if there are several virtues, then in accord with the best and most complete one

FUNCTION ARGUMENT for aristotle

depends on nature of soul

• plants, animals and humans fulfill the function by doing the work/ activity that is characteristic of them

• humans function is reason/ rationality as it is unique to them

telos = end purpose

virtue in CONTEXT example

COURAGE

• deficiency = cowardice

• excess = foolhardishness

• ancient greek battle - threat of death, overcoming fear

• not doing things for fear of punishment or shame, anger, lust

TEMPERANCE

• deficiency = insensibility

• excess = self-indulgence

• self-control in terms of eating, drinking, sex

• train self to enjoy moderate natural appetite, disgusted by things licentious people do

• habitual

what is JUSTICE?

considers the good of others - altruistic

2 senses

• whole system of law, rule and custom

• unites all other virtues as requires bravery to be temperate. courage for self and community

fairness in a distributional and rectifying sense

moral agent responsible only when done voluntarily

FRIENDSHIP

altruistic

similar function to justice but more important

3 kinds

• USEFULNESS - affection for one another comes from the good received from one another

• PLEASURE - same is true e.g. witty and humurous people encite pleasure

• GOODNESS - perfect type affecting 2 people who share same virtues

  • long lasting as love friend as version of self

altruism and egoism rationally coincide

what do friendship and justice mean for actions

PROPER INTENTION needed to carry out virtuous actions

• proper intention does not include desire, wish or opinion

• must include deliberation and choice made on basis of reason

a GOOD LIFE for humans

THEORIA = contemplation

• happiness conforms to the highest virtue, which must be the best thing in us

• highest thing in us is INTELLIGENCE - used for science and discovery of the world

• scientific discoveries are the highest objects of knowledge, contemplation of them gives us out greatest happiness

• contemplation is done for its own sake, so has INTRINSIC VALUE, and is, in effect, contemplation of the DIVINE, so theoretical reasoning must be the greatest thing we can do

QUESTIONS about a good life for humans

• is it obvious that intellectual contemplation brings more happiness than practical activity? just because it did for aristotle, does not mean same is true for others

• does contemplation of the divine make us happy?

• wouldnt it be holistic to suggest both theoretical and practical wisdom are indispensable and equally important?

S/W of VE

STRENGTHS

• holistic - whole personality considered - excellence of character, development of theoretical reasoning and practical skills

• human-centered, values strength of moral character above following rules

• allows for moral judgement, so no problem of deontological ethics where rules conflict, avoids trying to guess the future

• doesnt claim there is a perfect solution for every problem, instead equips people to deal with problems

• teleological focus of eudaimonia and well-being, so is good for society

• do not have to be mentally equipped to deal with NML’s doctrines e.g. double effect and instead follow virtuous examples, always room for development and improvement

• doctrine of mean - flexible with regards to situation and persons

• sees human emotions as important

• considers good of society

• reliable - habitually applied

WEAKNESSES

• ignores cultural relativism - what is virtuous in one culture/ century may not be in another

• all societies have different sets of virtues - how do we know which is right?

• circular argument

• not useful in both national and international politics when cannot make decisions based on character of individuals

• accuracy of function argument - fallacy of composition, to say humans have a telos is not in line with evolution

• anthropocentric - focus on good for humans and undervalues animals

• difficult to apply to issues concerning embryo research and cloning which require immediate answers

• people need laws to have a clear understanding of what they should and shouldnt do

• virtuous people can be dull

• conflict of virtues?

• differes between cultures - relativist

• subjective

THEFT and LYING in VE

virtue of FAIRNESS suggest they are WRONG

• must strive to fulfill our our human potential and be fair to our victims

• in VE, to be virtuous is to be ethical

why is lying considered WRONG?

• opposes virtue of honesty

• some debate over whether a lie told in pursuit of another virtue is right or wrong

• managed by UNITIY OF VIRTUES

UNITY OF VIRTUES

the virtuous person who we STRIVE to be, cannot achieve one virtue without achieving them all

must imagine what a virtuous person would do and act accordingly

virtuous vs non-virtuous person

V - consistently chooses right acts for right motive - habitual

NV - does good/ right act once in a while

ARISTOTLE’S definition of THEFT

a stealthy taking of property with intention to deprive someone of a good

• only if taken with intention of keeping it and injuring owner

• TAUTOLOGICAL - true by def

• does not make tautological claim that theft is wrong but rather that it does not allow society to flourish

VE and animal life and death

SPECIESISM AND HIERARCHY OF SOULS

saying one species is superior

VE does NOT subscribe to this, and so animals should be treated in same way as humans

HOWEVER

according to HIERARCHY OF SOULS, animals do not have reason, humans can treat them as they wish

what does aristotle say about animals

• do not have same rights as humans as are beneath them in hierarchy

• humans are only rational beings who are capable of understanding morality

• animal purpose is to help humans reach eudaimonia

• only humans can reach eudaimonia, animals do not have the same telos

animal rights according to aristotle

VE ad ANIMALS AS FOOD

animals exist for sake of humans

animals rights according to aristotle

VE and intensive farming

crowded and filthy conditions, many male chicks discarded

• must consider virtue of COMPASSION, which applies to humans and non-humans

animal rights according to aristotle

VE and ANIMALS FOR SCIENTIFIC USES

used animals in own scientific research

• highest thing in us is intelligence (reason) which is used to conduct experiments, this can extend intellect

STRENGTHS

• develops drugs and medicines to cure diseases e.g. HIV

• cloning animals has potential to improve health by controlling specific diseases in animals

• morally good when take stance of compassion

WEAKNESSES

• animal pain not always properly controlled as some researchers do not care for their suffering

• not compassionate

• no consent from animals

• no regulation

• ROSALIND HURSTHOUSE - unnecessary as benefits out of proportion to suffering caused

animal rights according to aristotle

VE and BLOOD SPORTS

STRENGTHS

• hunting a common pastime in greek society + source of food

• may be seen as courageous

WEAKNESSES

• some people judge a person by their treatment of animals - blood sports shows lack of consideration

• virtue of TEMPERANCE - pleasure at expense of others will not cause development of good character

• ROSALIND HURSTHOUSE - vice of callousness

• inferior form of courage ‘it is more courageous to be fearless and calm amid unforseen dangers’

• many others sports demonstrate reasoned courage e.g. karate

animal rights according to aristotle

VE and organ transplants

STRENGTHS

• aristotle’s approval of scientific research

• emphasis on development of useful knowledge

• COMPASSION to humans who may survive through organ transplants

WEAKNESSES

• CALLOUSNESS to animals to judge their lives as expendable

• CALLOUSNESS to those in society who are distressed at the prospect of using animals in this way

5 intellectual virtues

PRUDENCE/ PRACTICAL WISDOM = ability to learn from mistakes

ART/ CRAFT = special skills/ jobs we are trained in

INTUITIVE INTELLIGENCE = development of a ‘gut’ feeling of right and wrong

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE = ability to test and understand facts

WISDOM = having a good life

used to help work out golden mean

contemporary VE

PHILIPPA FOOT

ethics should be about making the world a better place

adopts aristotle’s ethics to achieve this

must be centered on good intentions and a wish to act in a positive way to benefit the individual ad community

focuses on deontological actions aristotle outlaws, agreeing that a virtuous person would never steal or kill

contemporary VE

ALISDAIR MACINTYRE

ethics are sociologically relative = what is right for one society may not be considered virtuous for another

• must be remembered when applying VE

some activities are good in and of themselves because they help humans - reading, painting

important for humans to look after themselves - cannot reach eudaimonia w/o shelter, food and leisure time

everything in moderation