AP Psychology (2024-2025) Unit - 1 - The Nervous System) (1/3)

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates

Nature

Biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's growth and development

Nurture

Environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual's psychological development.

Twin Studies

A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins with respect to a trait.

Adoption Studies

assess genetic and environmental influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

Heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring

Genetic Predisposition

Inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genes from biological parents

Eugenics

the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain that serves as the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Lobes of the Brain

Four main regions of the brain where the cerebral cortex is divided (Frontal, Pariental, Occipital, Temporal)

Association Areas

Parts from the brain that interpret what the human body sees, hears, smells, and touches

Frontal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and in making plans and judgments

Prefrontal Cortex

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning, such as preparing for an upcoming test

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Pariental Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Somatosensory Cortex

located on the front of the parietal lobes; registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Occipital Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal Lobes

Located at the sides of the brain; involved in audio processing and memory formation

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Brainstem

Oldest part of the brain that's responsible for automatic survival functions such as breathing and sleep wake cycles.

Medulla

Vital structure at the base of the brainstem that regulars automatic functions

reticular activating system

Located in the upper brain stem; responsible for maintenance of consciousness, specifically one's level of arousal.

Cerebellum

Below the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and pressure

Limbus System

doughnut-shaped neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Reward Center

a dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated, and reinforces behaviors associated with them

Thalamus

Relay station that processes sight and sound to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Pituitary Gland

Peas sized gland at the center of the brain; plays an essential role in horomones production and secretion

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Amygdala

Located in the temporal lobes; mostly regulates fear and aggression

The Nervous System

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates responses

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves and ganglia outside the CNS that transmitts sensory information from the body from the CNS

Automatic Nervous System (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

The component of the autonomic nervous system that responds to stressful situations by initiating the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

Neuron

a specialized cell transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body; a nerve cell.

Cell Body (Soma)

the part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

Axon

A long, slender extension of a neuron that carries signals from other neurons and transmits them to the cell body

axon terminals (terminal buttons)

Releases neurotransmitters to communicate with neighboring neurons

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; speeds up transmission of electrical signals

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neural Transmission

electrochemical communication within and between neurons and the final destination

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

All-or-Nothing Principle

The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches its threshold, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive, reducing the negative charges

Refractory Period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

Resting Potential

electrical charge across the cell membrane of a resting neuron

Reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS and its replacement by plaques of sclerotic (hard) tissue; leads to sluggish muscles

Myasthenia Gravis (MG)

chronic disease characterized by muscle weakness and thought to be caused by a defect in the transmission of impulses from nerve to muscle cell (ACh)

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that excite the next neuron into firing

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing

GABA

inhibitory neurotransmitter that promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. Is instantaneous in comparison to serotonin

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

Endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Substance p

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction (BREATHING AND MOVEMENT

Horomones

chemical substances that carry messages through the body in blood that regulate physiological processes and behaviors of organ cells

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness

Oxytonin

Stimulates contraction of uterus and the milk "let down" reflex. Also helps with social bonding

Adrenaline

A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Split Brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

left side of brain controls right side of body while right brain controls left body except smell

Hemispheric Specialization

term used to describe the fact the two hemisheres of the brain are designed to handle specific tasks (Left - logic, language; Right - creativity, spatial reasoning, art, emotion)

Linguistic Processing

The cognitive activities involved in understanding and producing language.

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Broca's Aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Wernicke's Aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

Wernicke's Aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Functional Magnetic Reasoning Imaging "fMRI"

A contemporary example of direct observation method. This tool allows you to observe, record, and map areas of the human brain that are activated when individuals are exposed to visual erotica

Lesioning

removal or destruction of part of the brain

Sympathetic Nervous System

a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, like worker bees to queen bees

Motor Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Reflex Arc

A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.