A LEVELS

Domestic Politics

Issues within the USA that directly concern citizens, eg. healthcare, gun control, racial issues

electoral mandate

permission granted to a political leader or winning party to govern and act on their behalf. The mandate is more or less in effect for as long as the government is in power

executive branch

headed by the president, is one of the three branches of government

executive orders

a direction to the federal bureaucracy on how the president would like a peice of legislation to be implemented

imperial presidency

a dominant presidency with ineffective checks and balances from the other branches

imperilled presidency

contrasting theory to imperial presidency, it is claimed that the president does not have enough power to be effective

informal powers

powers of the president not listed in the constitution but taken anyway

powers of persuasion

informal power of the president in which they can use the prestige of their job, and other bargaining methods in order to get people to do as they wish

unified government

where both houses of congress and the presidency are controlled by people from the same political party

supreme court

the highest court in the UK political system

Judicial Neutrality

the principle that judges should not be influenced by their personal political opinions and should remain outside of party politics

judicial independence

the principle that judges should not be influenced by other branches of government, particularly the executive

judicial review

the power of the judiciary to review, and sometimes reverse, actions by other branches of government that breach the law or that are incompatible with the human rights act

elective dictatorship

a government that dominates parliament, usually due to a large majority, and therefore as few limits on its power

european union (EU)

a political, economic union of a group of European countries

four freedoms (EU)

the principle of free movement of goods, services, capital and people within the EU's single market

legal sovereignty

the legal right to exercise sovereignty - i.e sovereignty in practice

ultra vires

literally ‘beyond the powers’. an action that is taken without legal authority when it requires it

legitiamcy

the rightful use of power in accordance with pre-set criteria or widely help agreements

direct democracy

all individuals express their opinions themselves and not through representatives acting on their behalf

representative democracy

a more modern form of democracy through which an individual selects a person to act on their behalf to exercise a political choice

pluralist democracy

a type of democracy in which a government makes decisions as a result of the interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from competing groups and organisations

democratic deficit

a flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, not having been appointed with sufficient democratic input or subject to accountability

participation crisis

a lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens to relate to the political process

franchise / suffrage

the ability to vote in public elections

think tanks

a body of experts brought together to collectively focus on a certain topic, to investigate and offer solutions to complicated political issues

lobbyists

paid by clients to try to influence the government and/ or MPs and members of the house of lords to act in their clients’ interests

executive

the collective group of Prime Minister, Cabinet and junior ministers sometimes known as ‘The Government”

cabinet

the prime minster and senior ministers, most of whom lead a particular government department

minister

an MP or member of the House of Lords appointed to a position in the government, usually exercising specific responsibilities in a department

government department

a part of the executive, usually with specific responsibility over an area such as education, health or defence

royal prerogative

a set of powers and privileges belonging to the monarch but normally exercised by the Prime Minister or Cabinet, such as the granting of honours or of legal pardons

secondary legislation

powers given to the Executive by Parliament to make changes to the law within certain specific rules

individual responsibility

the principle by which ministers are responsible for their personal conduct and for their departments

collective responsibility

principle by which ministers must support cabinet decisions or leave the executive

presidential government

an executive dominated by one individual, this may be a President but is also used to describe a strong, dominant Prime Minister

first-past-the-post

an electoral system where the person with the most number of votes is elected. Victory is achieved by having one more vote than other contenders - it is alson called a plurality system

additional member system

a hybrid electoral system that has two components. the voter makes two choices. firstly, the voter selects a representative on a FPTP system then a second vote is apportioned to a party list for a second representative

Single transferable vote

allows voters to rank their preferences. In order to obtain a seat, a candidate must obtain a quota. after the votes are cast, those with the least votes are eliminated and reallocated adn those with excess votes above the quota are also reallocated

supplementary vote

majoritarian system, the voter makes two choices. If one candidate obtains over 50% on the first vote the contest is complete, if no candidate attains this level, all but the top two candidates remain. the supplemetarty votes are then re-distributed and whoever gets the most votes wins

safe seat

a seat in which the incumbent has a considerable majority over the closest rival and which is largely immune from swings in voting choice

marginal seat

a seat held by the incumbent with a small majority. They are where the outcomes of elections are decided

minority government

a government that enters office but which does not have a majority of seats in the legislature. this makes passing legislation very difficult

coalition government

a government that is formed of more than one political party. It is normally accompanied by an agreement over policy options and office of state

hierarchy

the conservative belief that society is naturally organised in fixed tiers, where one’s position is not based on individual ability

authority

the idea that people in higher positions in society are best able to make decisions in the interests of the whole society, authority thus comes from above

change to conserve

society should adapt to changing circumstances rather then reject change outright are risk rebellion and/or revolution

atomism

that society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals (aka egoistical individualism)

noblesse oblige

the duty of the wealthy and privileged to look after those less fortunate

anti-permissiveness

a rejection of permissiveness, which is the belief that people should make their own moral choices, suggesting there is no objective right and wrong

radical

belief whose ideas favour drastic political, economic and social change

human imperfection

the traditional conservative belief that humans are flawed in a number of ways which makes them incapable of making good decisions for themselves

laissez-faire

a preference towards minimal government intervention in business and the state

empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from real experience and not from abstract theories

foundational equality

rights that all humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away (aka natural rights/inalienable rights)

formal equality

the idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society

equality of opportunity

the idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall

social contract

the idea that the state/society is set up with an agreement from the people to respect its laws which serve to protect them

meritocracy

a society organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work

mechanistic theory

the idea that the state was created by ‘man’ to serve the people and act in their interests

tolerance

a willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees

limited government

the role of government is limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers because of the corrupting nature of power

egoistical individualism

the idea that individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance

developmental individualism

the idea that individual freedom is linked to human flourishing

negative freedom

the absence of external constraints in society as well as no interference from in the private sphere

positive freedom

the idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential

laissez-faire capitalism

an economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced for exchange and profit and wealth is privately owned

keynesianism

an economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and price stability

harm principle

the idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals

minimal state

the idea that the role of the state must be restricted in order to preserve individual liberty

enabling state

a larger state helps individuals to achieve their full potential and be free

old labour

key labour principles embodying nationalisation, redistribution of wealth and continually improving welfare and state services

new labour

a revision of the traditional labour values, shift in emphasis from a heavy focus on the working class to a wider class base, and a less robust alliance with the trade unions

one nation

a paternalistic approach adopted by conservatism that the rich have an obligation to help the poor

new right

there are two elements, the neoconservatives who want the state to take a more authoritarian approach to morality and law and order and the neo-liberals who endorsed the free-market approach and the rolling back of the state

classical liberals

philosophy developed by early liberals who believed that individual freedom would best be achieved with the state playing a minimal role

modern liberals

a reaction against free-market capitalism, believing this had led to many individuals not being free

party systems

the way in which the political parties in a political system are grouped and structured (eg one-party dominant, two-party, multi-party)

left wing

a widely-used term for those who desire change, reform and alteration to the way society operates. Involves radical criticisms of the capitalism made by liberal and socialist parties

right wing

reflects support for the status quo, little or no change, stressing need for order, stability and hierarchy

class dealignment

the process where individuals no longer identify themselves as belonging to a certain class and fail to make a class connection with their voting pattern

partisan dealignment

the process where individuals no longer identify themselves on a long-term basis by being associated with a certain political party

governing competency

the perceived ability of the governing party in office to manage the affairs of the state well and effectively. It can also be a potential view of opposition parties and their perceived governing competency if they were to secure office

disillusion and apathy

a process of disengagement with politics and political activity. Having no confidence in politics and politicians as being able to solve issues and make a difference. Manifested in low turnout at elections and poor awareness of contemporary events

manifesto

where a political party spells out in detail what actions and programmes it would like to put in place if its successful in the next election

mandate

when the successful party following an election claims it has the authority to implement its manifesto promises and also a general permission to govern as new issues arise

Fraternity

The bonds of comradeship between individuals

Co-operation

Working collectively to achieve mutual benefits

Capitalism

An economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced for profit and goods are privately owned

Communism

The common ownership of mass production so that all are able to benefit from the wealth of society and to participate in its running

Evolutionary socialism

A parliamentary route, which would deliver a long-term, radical transformation in a gradual, piecemeal way through legal and peaceful means, via the state

Marxism

An ideological system, within socialism, that draws on writings of Marx and Engels and has at its core a philosophy of history that explains why it is inevitable that capitalism will be replaced with communism

Revisionism

A move to re-define socialism that involves a less radical view of capitalism and a reformed view of socialism

Social justice

A distribution of wealth that is morally justifiable and implies a desire to limit inequality

Constitution

A set of rules determining where sovereignty lies in a political system, and establishing the relationship between the government and the governed

Unentrenched

A constitution with no special procedure for amendment

Uncodified

A constitution not contained in a single written document

Unitary

A political system where all legal sovereignty is contained in a single place

Parliamentary sovereignty

The principle that parliament can make, amend or unmake any law, and cannot bind its successors or be bound by its predecessors

The rule of law

The principle that all people and bodies, including government, must follow the law and can be held to account if they don’t