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Respiratory System
provides oxygen tot the body, disposes of carbon dioxide, and helps regulate blood pH
Alveoli
it is a terminal air sacs where gas exchange occurs/site of gas exchange
Upper respiratory tract
the passageways from the nose to the larynx
Lower respiratory tract
the passageways from the trachea to alveoli
Nose
the only externally visible part of the respiratory system
Olfactory receptors (sense of smell)
located in the mucosa in the slit-like superior part of the nasal cavity, just beneath the ethmoid bone
Respiratory mucosa
rest of the mucosa lining in the nasal cavity
rests on a rich network of thin-walled veins that warms the air as it flows past
Ciliated cells
create a gentle current that moves the sheet of contaminated mucus posteriorly toward the throat (pharynx)
Conchae
lateral walls of the nasal cavity that are uneven, owing to the three mucosa-covered projections
increase the surface area of the mucosa exposed to the air
increase the air turbulence in the nasal cavity
Palate
the nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity below by a partition
Hard Palate
a palate which is anteriorly supported by bone
Soft palate
a palate which has unsupported posterior part
Cleft palate
failure of the bones forming the palate to fuse medially
a genetic defect that results in difficulty of breathing, as well as, oral cavity function problems
Paranasal sinuses
a ring surrounding the nasal cavity
located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
Sinuses
lighten the skull and act as resonance chambers for speech
produce mucus, which drains into the nasal cavity
Nasolacrimal ducts
drain tears from the eyes, and also empties into the nasal cavities
Rhinitis
inflammation of the nasal mucosa
excessive production of mucus that results in nasal congestion and postnatal drip
Sinusitis
sinus inflammation
difficult to treat and can cause marked changes in voice quality
Pharynx
commonly called the throat
common passageway for food and air
muscular passageway about 13cm (5in) long that vaguely resembles short length of garden hose
Nasopharynx
It is a region in the pharynx in which air enters the superior portion
Oropharynx
It is a region in the pharynx where the air descends from the nasal cavity
Laryngopharynx
a region in pharynx where air enter the larynx
3 regions of Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Epiglottis
a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
guardian of the airway
a flap in the esophagus which inhibits food to enter the larynx
Pharyngotympanic tubes
drain the middle ears open into the nasopharynx
Tonsils
clusters of lymphatic tissue
protects the body from infections
Pharyngeal tonsil
often called the adenoid
located high in the nasopharynx
Palatine tonsils
a type of tonsil which is located in the oropharynx at the end of the soft palate
Lingual tonsil
a kind of tonsil which lies at the base of the tongue
Tubal tonsil
a tonsil that protects the openings of the pharyngotympanic tubes in the nasopharynx
Tonsillitis
if the pharyngeal tonsil becomes swollen and inflamed (as during a bacterial infection)
Larynx
the voice box
routes airs and food in to the proper channels
plays a role in speech
Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s Apple)
it is shield-shaped and is largest of the hyaline cartilages
Cough reflex
If anything other than air enters the larynx, this will trigger to prevent the substance from continuing into the lungs
Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
part of the mucous membrane of the larynx that forms a pair of folds
vibrates with expelled air
its ability to vibrate allows us to speak
Glottis
slit-like passageway between the vocal folds
Trachea
commonly called as the windpipe
10-12cm / about 4in
fairly rigid because its walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
lines with a ciliated mucosa
Goblet Cells
cells surrounding the trachea which produces mucus
mucus production
Lungs
fairly large organs
occupies the entire thoracic cavity
Mediastinum
most central area of the thoracic cavity
houses the heart, great blood vessels, bronchi, esophagus, and other organs
Apex
the narrow superior portion of each lung and is just deep to the clavicle
Base
the broad lung area resting on the diaphragm
Right lung
a lung that has three (3) lobes
Left lung
a lung that has two (2) lobes
Pleural fluid
slippery serous fluid, which allows the lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during breathing and causes the two pleural layers to cling together
Pleurisy
inflammation of the pleurae
can be caused by insufficient secretion of pleural fluid
pleural surfaces become dry and rough, resulting in friction
Bronchioles
the smallest of the conducting passageways
Conducting zone structures
serve as conduits to and from the respiratory zone
Stroma
elastic connective tissue that allows the lungs to stretch and recoil as we breath
Alveolar pores
connects neighboring air sacs and provide alternative routes for air to reach alveoli whose feeder bronchioles have been clogged by mucus or otherwise blocked
Alveoli
the final defense for the respiratory system
Alveolar macrophages
sometimes called “dust cells”
wander in-and-out of the alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
Surfactant
a lipid (fat) molecule produced by squamous epithelial cells
coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces and is very important in lung function
Pulmonary ventilation
air must move in and out of the lungs so that the gases in the alveoli of the lungs are continuously refreshed
commonly called as breathing
External respiration
gas exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli must take place
made between the blood and the body exterior
Respiratory gas transport
oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via the bloodstream
Internal respiration
gas exchange occurs between the blood and cells inside the body
oxygen is unloaded from blood and carbon dioxide is loaded
Cellular respiration
use of oxygen to produce ATP and carbon dioxide, is the cornerstone of all energy producing chemical reactions and occurs in nearly all cells
Mechanics of breathing
volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to equalize the pressure
Inspiration
a phase of breathing when air is flowing into the lungs
Expiration
phase of breathing when air is leaving the lungs
passive process that depends more on the natural elasticity of the lungs than on muscle contraction
Intrapulmonary volume
volume within the lungs
Diaphragm and External intercostals
when the inspiratory muscles contract which makes the volume (size) of thoracic cavity increase
Forced expiration
the internal intercostal muscles are activated to help depress the rib cage, and the abdominal muscles contract and help to force air from the lungs by squeezing the abdominal organs upward against the diaphragm.
Intrapleural pressure
pressure within the pleural space which is always negative (meaning it is lower than the pressure inside the lungs).
Atelectasis (lung collapse)
the lung is useless for ventilation
occurs when air enters the pleural space through a chest wound, but it may also result from a rupture of the visceral pleura, which allows air to enter the pleural space from the respiratory tract.
Pneumothorax
Air in the intrapleural space
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV),
The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly above the tidal volume
around 3,100 ml
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond tidal expiration
approximately 1,200 ml
Residual volume
allows gas exchange to go on continuously even between breaths and helps to keep the alveoli open (inflated)
Vital capacity (VC)
sum of the tidal volume plus the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes
around 4,800 ml in healthy young men and 3,100 ml in healthy young women (total amount of exchangeable air)
Dead space volume
the air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the conducting zone passageways and never reaches the alveoli to participate in gas exchange
Spirometer
used for measuring respiratory capacities
Bronchial sounds
sounds that are are produced by air rushing through the large respiratory passageways (trachea and bronchi).
Vesicular breathing sounds
sounds which occur as air fills the alveoli.
sounds like soft murmurs that resemble a muffled breeze.
Hypoxia
inadequate oxygen delivery to body tissues
Carbon monoxide poisoning
represents a unique type of hypoxia
Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, colorless gas that competes vigorously with oxygen for the same binding sites on hemoglobin
phrenic nerves and intercostal nerves
The activity of the respiratory muscles, the diaphragm and external intercostals, is regulated by nerve impulses transmitted from the brain by?
ventral respiratory group
contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons that alternately send impulses to control the rhythm of breathing.
dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
integrates sensory information from chemoreceptors and peripheral stretch receptors
communicates this information to the VRG to help modify breathing rhythms
pons respiratory centers
help to smooth the transitions (modify timing) between inhalation and exhalation during activities such as singing, sleeping or exercising
hyperpnea
breathing more vigorously and deeply because the brain centers send more impulses to the respiratory muscles
Nonneural Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth
Physical Factors
Volition (Conscious Control)
Emotional Factors
Chemical Factors
Hyperventilation
an increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exceeds the body’s need to remove carbon dioxide
apnea
cessation of breathing, until the carbon dioxide builds up in the blood again
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema
a major cause of death and disability in the world
chronic bronchitis
a disease where the mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes severely inflamed and produces excessive mucus
emphysema
a disease wherein the walls of some alveoli are destroyed, causing the remaining alveoli to be enlarged
common types of lung cancer
adenocarcinoma
squamous cell carcinoma
small cell carcinoma
small cell carcinoma
(about 20 percent)
a type of carcinoma which contains lymphocyte-like cells that originate in the main bronchi and grow aggressively in small grapelike clusters within the mediastinum, a site from which metastasis is especially rapid
squamous cell carcinoma
25– 30 percent
a type of carcinoma which arises in the epithelium of the larger bronchi and tends to form masses that hollow out and bleed
adenocarcinoma
(40 percent of cases)
a type of carcinoma which originates as solitary nodules in peripheral lung areas and develops from bronchial glands and alveolar cells
Surfactant
a fatty molecule made by the cuboidal alveolar cells
lowers the surface tension of the film of water lining each alveolar sac so that the alveoli do not collapse between each breath
Cystic fibrosis (CF)
the most common lethal genetic disease in the United States, strikes in 1 out of every 3,500 to 4,000 births.
infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)
Infants who are born prematurely (before week 28) or in whom surfactant production is inadequate
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
also called as crib death
asthma
caused by chronically inflamed, hypersensitive bronchial passages that respond to many irritants (such as dust mite and cockroach droppings, dog dander, and fungi) with dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing
sleep apnea
occur when throat muscles relax, blocking the airway, or when signals to the respiratory muscles are improperly delivered or not delivered at all