The Weimar Republic 1918-29

The end of WW1

By autumn 1918 it was clear that Germany was going to lose WW1. From November onwards a series of events occurred which became known as the German Revolution

The Kiel Mutiny

• November 3 1918 - Germans sailors mutinied instead of following orders to attack British Royal Navy

• Sailor’s mutiny sparked rebellions all over Germany leading to the collapse of the German government, forcing Kaiser Wilhelm to abdicate on 9 November

• Following this, Friedrich Ebert, Leader of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) became chancellor and took power over Germany

The Weimar republic

• January 1919 - elections gave SPD party most power

• Ebert became first democratically chosen President

• He and his party started drawing up a new constitution for German

• Met in Weimar because Germany was too unsafe after Spartacist uprising earlier

• approved and signed in August 1919

The Weimar Consitution

The republic set up as a representative democracy, which tried to give genuine power to all German adults. Had major flaws and crashed in 1933-34

Strengths and Weaknesses:

strengths:

• a genuine democracy - Elections for parliament and president took place every 4 years and all Germans over 20 could vote

• Power of the Reichstag - The Reichstag appointed the government and made all laws.

• A Bill of Rights - Guaranteed every German citizen freedom of speech, religion, and equality under the law

weaknesses:

• proportional representation - each party got the same perctentage of seats in the parliament as votes it received in an election. A lot of small parties in parliament making it difficult to pass laws and led to weak and short-lived governments

• article 48 - gave the president the power to act without parliament’s approval in an emergency. Did not define what ‘emergency’ was so the power was overused, which weakened Germans’ confidence in democracy

Early Challenges

• Republic created during time of chaos and confusion

• people starving and kaiser fled

• Many Germans hated the government for signing the armistice - november criminals

• theory that the german army had been stabbed in the back by politicians

• early 1919 the allies met to discuss Germany’s punishment and on 28 June 1919 the new government was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles

• Many resented the government for agreeing but they government had been given an ultimatum - sign within 5 days or risk invasion

The Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

• blame - germany forced to accept the blame for starting the war. Artivle 231 - War Guilt Clause

• reparations - money germany had to pay for the damage suffered by Britain and France. 1922, the amount was £6.6 billion

• armed forces - Germany’s army and navy was reduced in size. 100,000 troops were allowed in the army and conscription and tanks were banned. Germany navy reduced to 15,000 personnel, allowed only6 battleships and no submarines

• territory - Germany lost all land on all sides of its borders as well as its overseas colonies. In Europe:

  • Alsace-Lorraine went back to France

  • Eupen-Malmedy was recognised as Beligain

  • France also took the coal from the Saar region. The Ruhr eventually would be occupied by the french

  • Some Upper Silesia went to Czechoslovakia and some to Poland

  • Rhineland was demilitarised

  • agreements that had been made when russia left the war in 1917 under the Treat of Brest-Litovsk were overturned

  • Anschluss was forbidden

The threat from the left: Spartacist Uprising

• 5-12 January 1919, the spartacists rebelled in Berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht

• government saved when the Freikorps, who defeated the spartacist rebels

• in the aftermath, communist workers’ councils took power all over Germany, and a Communist People’s Government took power in Bavaria

• Liebknecht and Luxemburg were killed by the Freikorps after being arrested on the 15th. Luxemburg’s body was dumped in a canal.

• By May 1919 the Freikorps had crushed all of these uprisings.

The Kapp Putsch

• In crushing the communists the Freikorps had saved the government, but the terms of the Treaty of Versailles meant Germany’s army had to be significantly reduced and the Freikorps had to be disbanded.

• During 13 - 17 March 1920, as a reaction to this, the right-wing nationalist, Dr Wolfgang Kapp led a Freikorps takeover in Berlin.

• The regular army refused to attack the Freikorps; Kapp was only defeated when the workers of Berlin went on strike and refused to cooperate with him.

Other Violence

Nationalist terrorists assassinated 356 government politicians, including Walter Rathenau (June 1922), the foreign minister, and Matthias Erzberger who had been finance minister. Judges in their trials, many of whom preferred the Kaiser's government, consistently gave these terrorists light sentences, or let them go free.

The hyperinflation crisis

• weimar government main crisis occured in 1923 after Germany missed reparations payment in late 1922

• set of chain of reactions including occupation, hyperinflation, and rebellions

The French and Belgian Occupation of the Ruhr

• November 1922 - germany defaulted on its reparations as scheduled. first reparation took all they could afford

• France did not believe Germany, and believed that they could make the repayments and were choosing not to

• France and Belgium sent troops into the Ruhr and aimed to take industrial goods as payment

• they occupied coal mines, railways, steelwork, and factories - important to German economy

• German government ordered a passive resistance -refusing to work or cooperate with foreign troops and in return the government paid their wages

• french response - workers refusing were shot at and others expelled

Hyperinflation

• government printed more money to pay workers - contributed to hyperinflation

• Germany was already struggling with inflation due to debt and post war effects

• passive resistance weakened the economy further

• costed more to print a note than its worth'

• workers paid twice a day

Rebellions

• hardships led to uprisings

• nationalist group called Black Reichswehr rebelled in Sept 1923

• communist took over the government of Saxony and Thuringia in October 1923

• also took Rhineland and declared independent

• Nazis attempted Putsch in Munich in Nov 1923

Gustav Stresemann and economic recovery Stresemann

• Stresemann became chancellor in 1923 during the hyperinflation crisis

• time when prices in Germany went up quicker than people could spend their money and the currency lost its value

• Stresemann chancellor for 3 months and after served as foreign minister until his death in October 1929

The end of hyperinflation

• calling off passive resistance in the Ruhr - helped economy because goods were back in production and germany could stop printing money to pay striking workers

• promising to pay reparations again - persuaded france and belgium to end the occupation of the Ruhr by 1925

• Introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark - stabilised prices

• reducing the amount of money the government spent

Renegotiating reparations

Did the republic really recover?

International Relations

• after losing WW1, Germany was an international outcast

• Stresemann oversaw an improvement in Germany’s relationship with the rest of Europe between 1925-28

  • Locarno Treaties 1925 - October 1925 Germany, France, and Belgium agreed to respect their post-versailles borders, whilst Germany agreed with Poland and czechoslovakia to settle any border disputes peacefully

  • League of nations 1926 - by signing locarno treaties germany showed that it was accepting the Versailles settlement and a year later accepted as permanent member of the Council

  • Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 - Germany of the 62 countries that signed up, which committed its signatories to settling disputes between them peacefully

• this meant that Germany was accepted into the emerging ‘international community’ that sought to work together to avoid another war.

• Helped Germany’s internal wounds heal - government seen taking decisive actions to make life better for people and right the wrongs the Treaty of Versailles had caused

• let to better political stability

• lasted until the wall street crash of october 1929

Changes in the standard of living

• hourly wages rose every year from 1924-30

• pensions and sickness benefits introduced

• compulsory unemployment insurance introduced, covered 17 million workers

• government subsidies provided for the building of local parks, schools, and sports facilities

• however, large increase in the working in during the mid-20s led to increasing unemployment

Changes in the position of women

work

• Women experienced pressure to return to their ‘traditional’ role as wives and mothers.

• However, attitudes towards women and work changed according to how well the economy did.

• During times of economic crisis, such as the hyperinflation of 1923 and during the Great Depression, women returning home were seen as a solution to the problem of unemployment.

• However, during the recovery of the mid-1920s women were welcomed into the workforce. The number of women in work was 1.7 million higher in 1925 than it had been in 1907.

• Women were increasingly taking on white collar jobs, though these were mainly done by single women under 25.

• Overall, the percentage of women in work only rose by less than 1 per cent between 1907 and 1925.

Politics

Progress

• Women’s voting turnout in the elections for the National Assembly in January 1919 was the same as men’s at 82 per cent

• Political parties quickly realised the need to appeal to the women’s vote and much propaganda was directed towards them

• Women were elected to local and regional assemblies all over Germany, and typically made up around eight per cent of the representatives in the Prussian Landtag, the most powerful regional parliament.

Stayed the same

• During the rest of the Weimar period women’s voting turnout was typically 5-10 per cent lower than that of men.

• Propaganda usually appealed to women as wives and mothers, rather than asking for their vote on the basis of improving their own lives

• By 1933 women made up just 4.6 percent of the representatives in parliament

• No women held cabinet posts during the Weimar Republic’s 14 year existence and no women sat in the upper house of parliament, the Reichsrat

Leisure

Nazi Party Platform

• Nazi party platform - 25 point program for the creation of a Nazi state and society

• Hitler presented program at Hofbräuhaus Beerhall Munich Feb 24 1920

• 25 points combined extreme nationalism, racial antisemitism and socialist concepts with German outrage over Treaty of Versailles

• Program called for German rejection of the Versailles Treaty and for inclusion of all Germans into a greater German state

• Nazis declared intention to segregate Jews for ‘Aryan’ German society and to abrogate the political, legal, and civil rights of Jews in German

• 25 points had several messages to appeal to workers that included calls for profit-sharing in large industries, the nationalisation of trusts, free education, and an increase in pension payments

After the Nazi Rise to Power

• 25 points remained the Nazi Party’s official statement of goals though in later years the Nazis ignored many points

• still achieved some goals, revoked German citizenship from Jews (Nuremberg Race Laws) and excluded Jews from German society

• exclusion of Jews resulted in deportation from Germany, began in 1941

Hitler’s Early Career 1919-20

World War One

• Hitler fought in WWI, Germany’s surrender big shock for him and had an effect on his political views - felt like he was stabbed in the back

• Many Germans hated the government for signing the armistice - called them the ‘November Criminals’

• People led to believe that Jews in the army and the government encouraged surrender

The German Worker’s Party and start of the Nazis

• after WW1, Hitler returned to Munich and became the leader of the German’s Worker’s Party (DAP), which later turned into the Nazi Party

• 1918 - Hitler returns to Much

• 1919 - Hitler joined the DAP, right-wing group led by Anton Drexler

• 1920 - Hitler became the Party’s leading public speaker and propagandist

• 1920 - The group changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) - or Nazis. Hitler designed the Swastika emblem

• 1921 - Hitler elected Party Chairman and leader of the Nazis

The early Nazi Party and its beliefs

Key Nazi beliefs contained in the 25-Point Programme

• A strong Germany - the Treaty of Versailles should be abolished and all German-speaking people united in one country

• Führer - the idea that there should be a single leader with complete power rather than a democracy

• Social Darwinism - the idea that the Aryan race was superior and Jews were ‘subhuman’

• Autarky - the idea that Germany should be economically self-sufficient

• That Germany was in danger - from communists and Jews, who had to be destroyed

• Lebensraum - the need for ‘living space’ for the German nation to expand

The appeal of the Nazis

• Nazis tried to appeal to a lot of different members of society

Socialist:

• farmers should be given their land

• pensions should improve

• public industries such as electricity and water should be owned by the state

Nationalist:

• all German-speakers should be united in one country

• the Treaty of Versailles should be abolished

• there should be special laws for foreigners

Racist:

• Jews should not be German citizens

• Immigration should be stopped

Fascist:

• focused on creating a strong central government

• government control of the newspapers

Membership and growth

• Hitler became 55th member of DAP

• by the end of 1920 Nazi party had a membership of 2,000

• during hyperinflation crisis membership reached 20,000 by the time of the Munich Putsch in Nov 1923

The role and impact of the SA

• 1921 Hitler assembled large group of unemployed of young men and former soldiers AKA Storm Troopers (Sturmabteilung) or SA, Nazi’s private army:

• ‘Bownshirts’ after brown shirted uniforms

• role to protect party meetings, march in rallies, and intimidate political opponents

• after failure of Munich Putsch, SA reorganised

• began to be used to intimidate voters into voting for Nazi Party

• led by Ernst Rohm, later killed following the Night of the Long Knives

• by 1932 SA had 400,00 members, became around 2 million by the time Hitler came into power in 1933

The Munich Putsch

Summary of events

• November 1923 - Hitler tried to take advantage of the hyperinflation crisis facing the Weimar government by instigating a revolution in Munich.

• Hitler plotted with 2 nationalist politicians - Kahr and Lossow - to take over Munich in a revolution

• Hitler collected the SA and told them to get ready to rebel

• Oct 4 1923 Kahr and Lossow called off the rebellion

• impossible situation for Hitler, who had 3,000 troops ready to fight

• Night of 8 November 1923, Hitler + 600 SA members burst into a meeting that Kahr and Lossow were holding and waved a gun at them

• Hitler forced them to agree to rebel then let them go home

• Hitler also managed to persuade General Ludendorff, German war hero, to back his revolution

• SA took over army headquarters and the offices of the local newspaper

• 9 November 1923, Hitler and the SA went to Much

• Kahr had called the police and army reinforcements

• police killed 16 members of the SA

• Hitler fled but was arrested 2 days later

Causes that led to Hitler attempting the Munich Putsch

• By 1923, Nazi party had 55,000 members and was stronger than ever

• Weimar Republic in a crisis due to hyperinflation

• September 1923, Weimar government called of the general strike in the Ruhr

• German nationalists were angry with the government

• Hitler thought he would be helped by important nationalist politicians in Bavaria

• Hitler had huge army of SA members, but he knew he lose control of them if he did not give them something to do

• Hitler hoped to copy Mussolini - Italian fascist leader - who came to power in 1922 by marching on Rome

Consequences of the Munich Putsch

• Munich Putsch was a failure but was an important event for the Nazi’s to rise to power

Short term failure:

• Nazi party banned and Hitler prevented from speaking in public until 1927

• Hitler was tried for high treason and sentenced to 5 years in prison

Long term successes:

• Hitler used his trial as a political rally

• ranting against Weimar government gained a lot of media coverage and helped raise his profile

• served only 8 months and during which he wrote Mein Kampf - propaganda book setting out Nazi beliefs. Millions of Germans read it and Hitler’s ideas became very well known

• Hitler realised he would not come to power by revolution and he had to use democratic means, so he reorganised the party to enable it to take part in the elections

The Nazi Party’s lean years, 1924-1929

• Hitler released from jail after Munich Putsch in December 1924.

• He committed the Nazis to democratic politics and began reorganising the party, strengthening his authority as leader and began building a national party structure began building a national party structure

• 1924-29 known as lean years because 2 contradictory things were happening

• Party growing in size. membership increased from 27k in 25 to 130k in 29

• struggled to win seats in the Reichstag

Development of the Nazi Party

Party reorganisation

• democratic methods meant the party needed a national structure to attract members, develop polices, and campaign

• Hitler put this in place 1925-26

Propaganda - Mein Kampf

• his political beliefs and ambitions

• Many directly informed nazi polity after 1933 under the Third Reich

• beliefs that Jews are an inferior race and represented a threat to the German state

• The need to destroy parliamentary system of government and replace with a single dictator

• Germany’s requirement for Lebensraum for its growing population requiring it to expand into Poland and Russia

The Bamberg Conference 1926

Hitler called a conference on February 14 1926 in response to tension between the northern and southern section of the party

• the northern section led by Gegor Strasser, wanted to emphasise the socialist elements of the 25-points to attract support from the workers

• southern section more interestred in the nationalist and racist policies in order to attract support from the middle classes and farmers

The results of the conference:

• Hitler insisted that policies which could be painted at communist, would not be pursued

• conferenced reaffirmed the 25-point progamme, with its socialist ideas, as the the party’s policy platform

• Hitler established the Fuhrerprinzip, the idea that the party’s leader was in absolute control and all members must follow his directions. No dissent was expected or tolerated

Reasons for limited support of the Nazi Party, 1924-28

• after 1923, the introduction of a new currency and the Dawes Plan, helped turn Weimar’s economy around and Germans felt wealthier

• USA agreed to loan 800 million marks to Germany (caused problems later on)

• Germany was more politically stable

• Germans voted for moderate parties who supported the republic rather than parties like the Nazis who wanted to abolish it

• Hitler was jailed then banned from public speaking until 1927 after the Munich Putsch, which prevented the party from campaigning effectively

• Nazi under constant pressure from Weimar authorities following the Munich Putsch. Was banned several times nationally or in certain parts of Germany

The party still developed effective propaganda techniques under its Berlin Gauleiter, Joseph Goebbels, which enabled it to capitalise on the economic disaster that was to strike Germany from 1929 onwards

The end of the Weimar Republic

The impact of the Depression on Germany

• October 1929 the Wall Street Crash brought about a global economic depression

• In Europe, Germany worst affected because American banks called in all foreign loans in a short notice

• the loans had been the basis for Weimar’s economic recovery from hyperinflation

• loans funded German industry and helped pay reparations

• Without the German industry collapsed and a depression began

• there was a rise in unemployment, 1 in 3 Germans were unemployed by the time Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933

• Industrial products had also more than halved over the same period

The impact of unemployment

• The rise in unemployment significantly raised government expenditure on unemployment insurance and other benefits.

• Germans began to lose faith in democracy and looked to extreme parties on the both the Left (the communists) and the Right (the Nazis) for quick and simple solutions.

Political failure

• March 1930 the German Chancellor, Hermann Müller, resigned when his government could not agree on how to tackle the rise in government spending caused by the rise in unemployment.

• Replaced by Heinrich Brüning, his policies were ineffective in dealing with the unemployment crisis and further undermined Germans’ faith in democracy.

• July 1930, Chancellor Brüning cut government expenditure, wages and unemployment pay

  added to the spiral of decline and unemployment continued to rise, as well as making those who had lost their jobs even poorer

• Brüning could not get the Reichstag to agree to his actions

• President Hindenburg used Article 48 of the Weimar constitution, to govern. This undermined democracy and weakened the power of the Reichstag – arguably opening the way for Hitler’s later dictatorship.

The rise of extremism

• Between 1930 and 1933 support for the extreme right-wing Nazis and the extreme left-wing communists soared

• By 1932 parties committed to the destruction of the Weimar Republic held 319 seats out of a total of 608 in the Reichstag, with many workers turning to communism

The appeal of Hitler and the Nazis

Nazis continued to put forward their 25-points. They had broader social and geographical appeal than the communists. Support came from:

• wealthy businessmen - frightened by the increase in support for the communists, they began to finance Hitler and the Nazis

• the middle-class - alarmed by the obvious failure of democracy, they decided that the country needed a strong government and gave their votes to Hitler

• nationalists - they blamed the legacy of the Treaty of Versailles and reparations for causing the depression and so lent their support to the Nazis

• rural areas - Nazi support was particularly strong amongst both middle class shopkeepers and artisans, farmers and agricultural labourers

The effects of propaganda

• controlled by Joseph Goebbels and had 3 main themes:

  • The Führer cult. Hitler was always portrayed as Germany’s saviour – the man who would rescue the country from the grip of depression.

  • Volksgemeinschaft (people’s community). This was the idea that the Nazis would create one German community that would make religion or social class less relevant to people.

  • Scapegoating the Jews (and others) for Germany’s ills. Jews were often portrayed as sub-human, or as a threat to both the racial purity and economic future of the country.

• Goebbel’s propaganda campaign was very effective

The role of the SA

The SA played a part in the Nazis’ increasing popularity by:

• intimidating the Nazis’ political opponents – especially the communists – by turning up at their meetings and attacking them

• providing opportunities for young, unemployed men to become involved in the party

• protecting Hitler and other key Nazis when they organised meetings and made speeches

By 1932, there were 400k members

Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor

1932

April - Presidential election. Hitler came second to Hindenburg, who won 53 per cent of the vote to Hitler’s 36.8 per cent.

May - Brüning’s government became very unpopular and he resigned. Hindenburg appointed Franz von Papen, a conservative, as his replacement.

July - Reichstag elections. The Nazis became the largest single party with 230 seats, but still did not have a majority. Hitler demanded to be made Chancellor but Papen remained.

November - Papen was forced to call another Reichstag election to try to win a majority in parliament. Nazis lost 34 seats but remained the largest party with 196 seats. Papen suggested abolishing the Weimar constitution. This led to Kurt von Schleicher, the Minister of Defence, persuading Hindenburg that if this happened there could be a civil war.

December - Having lost the confidence of Hindenburg, Papen resigned. Schleicher was then made Chancellor on 3 December 1932. Schleicher tried to split the Nazis by asking a leading Nazi called Gregor Strasser to be his Vice Chancellor. Hitler forced Strasser to decline.

1933

January - Papen agreed a deal with Hitler and persuaded Hindenburg to allow a Hitler/Papen government to be formed. Hitler was appointed as Chancellor of Germany after much political scheming on 30 January 1933 with Papen as Vice Chancellor. The Nazis had recently lost 34 seats and only 3 of the 11 cabinet posts were given to Nazis. Papen claimed that Hitler could be controlled as Chancellor.

Hitler into power 1929-34

The creation of a dictatorship

Hitler also extended his power in other ways:

• Local government was reorganised – with Nazi Party officials put in charge of each area of Germany.

• Trade unions were abolished and their leaders arrested.

• A Concordat (agreement) was signed with the Pope, which allowed Hitler to increase his power in Germany without opposition from the Catholic Church, as long as he left the Church alone.

• People's courts: Hitler set up the Nazi people's courts where judges had to swear an oath of loyalty to the Nazis.

By the autumn of 1934 Hitler was in complete control of Germany.

Life in Nazi Germany 1933-39

The Police State

• By August 1934, Hitler became a dictator with absolute power, relying on organizations to control the population and ensure loyalty.

• After the Night of the Long Knives, three interlinked organizations (in addition to regular police) played a key role in control through spying, intimidation, and imprisonment:

  1. Schutzstaffel (SS): Led by Heinrich Himmler, the SS was initially Hitler's personal bodyguard, later becoming the most important organization, overseeing others and managing concentration camps for "enemies of the state."

  2. Gestapo: The secret police force that monitored opposition, often helped by Germans informing on others.

  3. Sicherheitsdienst (SD): The intelligence agency of the SS, responsible for securing Nazi leadership, led by Reinhard Heydrich.

Nazi Control of the Legal System

• Judges: Swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler, ensuring rulings aligned with Nazi interests.

• Lawyers: Had to join the Nazi Lawyers' Association for control.

• Weakening of Defense: The role of defense lawyers was reduced in trials.

• Criminal Law Changes:

  • Standard punishments abolished; local prosecutors decided penalties.

  • Criminal offences halved (1933-1939), but crimes with the death penalty rose from 3 to 46.

  • Many criminals moved to concentration camps after serving sentences.

Propaganda and Control (Goebbels and the Ministry of Propaganda)

• Joseph Goebbels led the Ministry of Enlightenment and Propaganda, using various tools to ensure Nazi control:

  • Censorship: Press controlled, only pro-Nazi stories allowed.

  • Radio: Cheap radios ensured wide access; all broadcasts controlled.

  • Mass rallies: Held to promote Nazism, notably the annual Nuremberg rally.

  • Sports: The 1936 Berlin Olympics showcased Nazi strength and Aryan superiority, though Jesse Owens' victories angered Nazis.

  • Loudspeakers: Used in public to broadcast propaganda, reinforcing racial superiority messages.

Nazi Control of Culture and the Arts

• Art: Modern, abstract art from the Weimar period was deemed "degenerate." Over 6,500 artworks were removed, promoting instead "Aryan art" that glorified physical and military power.

• Architecture: Hitler saw architecture as a symbol of Nazi power, with Albert Speer redesigning Berlin and Nuremberg stadiums for rallies.

• Literature: 1933 book burnings targeted subversive and ideologically opposed works, including those by Jewish, liberal, and socialist authors.

• Theatre: Certain plays were banned, but classics like Shakespeare were allowed.

• Film: Nazis took control of film production and distribution. Filmmakers had to join the Reichsfilmkammer, and stars like Lil Dagover were used to promote Nazi popularity.

• Music: Jewish composers (e.g., Mendelssohn) were banned, while Wagner was promoted. Jazz was rejected as "degenerate Negro music."

Nazi Influence on Society

• The Nazis aimed to control all aspects of German life, using culture, media, and the arts to spread Nazi ideology and maintain their grip on power.

Employment and living standards

Nazi Promises and Economic Goals

• After suffering during WWI and the Depression, the Nazi promise of economic recovery was appealing.

• Hitler aimed for full employment and autarky (self-sufficiency). By 1939, official unemployment was nearly eradicated, but autarky failed.

How Hitler Increased Employment

1. Public Works:

   • Major projects such as building hospitals, schools, public buildings (e.g., the 1936 Olympic Stadium), and autobahns.

   • The autobahns created jobs for 80,000 men.

2. Rearmament:

   • Key driver of economic growth (1933-1938).

   • Officially announced in 1935, creating millions of jobs.

3. National Labour Service (NLS):

   • All young men were required to spend six months in the NLS, followed by conscription into the army.

Invisible Employment

• Despite claims of full employment, certain groups were excluded from statistics:

  • 1.4 million men in the army.

  • Jews who were fired and replaced by non-Jews.

  • Women who were encouraged to give up jobs for men.

Autarky and Economic Failures

• Hermann Göring was tasked with making Germany self-sufficient by 1941.

  • Introduced controls on imports and subsidies for farmers.

  • However, the policy failed, as Germany still imported 20% of its food and 33% of raw materials by WWII.

Impact of Nazi Economic Policies on Different Groups

1. Big Businesses:

   • By 1937, monopolies controlled over 70% of production.

   • Rearmament boosted profits, with managers' wages rising by 50% (1933-1939).

2. Small Businesses:

   • Strict regulations led to the closure of 20% of small businesses.

3. Farmers:

   • Benefited from rising agricultural prices (+20% by 1937) and wages.

   • Hereditary Farm Law (1933) protected farms from repossession, providing security for farming families.

4. Industrial Workers:

   • Initially, the Nazis lacked support among workers (who often voted communist or socialist), but rearmament demanded worker productivity and control.

   • Labour Front: Replaced trade unions, set wages (favoring employers).

   • Strength Through Joy: Rewarded workers with leisure activities (e.g., holidays, theatre trips).

   • Beauty of Labour: Promoted the idea that work was beneficial and encouraged better working conditions.

   However, conditions for industrial workers did not improve significantly:

   • Wages decreased, working hours increased by 15%, and factory accidents rose.

   • Workers who challenged conditions were often blacklisted.

Conclusion

While Nazi economic policies improved employment and benefitted certain sectors like big businesses and farmers, many workers faced worsening conditions, and autarky failed to achieve self-sufficiency.

Nazi policies towards women

Nazi Ideals for Women

• Women were expected to focus on home life, family, and childbearing to secure the future of the Aryan race.

• Hitler promoted the three "K's" for women:

  • Kinder (children)

  • Küche (kitchen)

  • Kirche (church)

• Joseph Goebbels stated: "The mission of women is to be beautiful and to bring children into the world."

Marriage and Family Policies

• The Nazis aimed to increase the Aryan birth rate through several policies:

  1. Law for the Encouragement of Marriage:

     • Newlyweds were given loans of 1,000 marks; couples could keep 250 marks for each child they had.

  2. Mother’s Cross:

     • Awarded to women with large families, incentivizing childbirth.

  3. SS Motherhood:

     • Women could volunteer to have children with Aryan SS members to support racial purity.

Employment Policies

• Initially, the Nazis discouraged women from working:

  1. Law for the Reduction of Unemployment:

     • Gave financial incentives to women to stay home.

  2. Women were not conscripted into the workforce until 1943.

• Despite these policies, the number of women in employment increased by 2.4 million between 1933 and 1939 due to economic growth and the need for labor as Germany prepared for war.

Expectations of Appearance

• Women were expected to embody traditional German peasant fashion:

  • Plain clothing, hair in plaits or buns, and flat shoes.

  • Women were discouraged from wearing make-up, trousers, or dyeing their hair.

  • Smoking in public and being too slim were frowned upon, as thinness was believed to hinder childbirth.

Conclusion

Nazi policies promoted a traditional role for women focused on family and childbearing, but economic and wartime demands led to an increase in female employment. Women's appearance was tightly controlled to reflect idealized German values.

Nazi aims and policies towards the young

Importance of Youth to Nazi Ideology

• Hitler believed that for the Third Reich to last a thousand years, German children needed to be indoctrinated into Nazi ideology from an early age.

• By 1936, membership in the Hitler Youth (and the League of German Maidens for girls) became compulsory for children aged 10 and up.

• By 1939, 90% of German boys aged 14 and over were members of the Hitler Youth.

Hitler Youth vs. League of German Maidens

Nazi Control of Education

• Schools were used to indoctrinate young Germans in Nazi ideology, alongside the Hitler Youth.

• Teachers had to join the Nazi Teachers' Association and were vetted for their political and racial views.

Changes to the Curriculum

• The curriculum was revised to reflect Nazi ideals:

  • History lessons included Nazi propaganda, such as the rise of the Nazi Party.

  • Biology was used to promote Nazi racial theories.

  • Physical Education was given high priority, with five one-hour sports lessons per week.

  • Subjects like Chemistry and Mathematics were downgraded in importance.

Nazi policies towards the catholic and protestant churches

Religious Demographics and Nazi Perception

• In 1933, Germany had 45 million Protestants and 22 million Catholics.

• Hitler viewed Christianity as a threat due to its emphasis on peace, which contradicted Nazi ideology.

• The Nazis sought to control the churches through a mix of policies and bargaining.

Control of the Protestant Church

• The Nazis created a state-controlled Reich Church, led by Nazi Bishop Ludwig Müller, to unify Protestant denominations.

• A group within the Reich Church, the German Christians, promoted Nazi ideas in religious services.

Control of the Catholic Church

• In 1933, Hitler signed a Concordat with the Pope, agreeing not to interfere with the Catholic Church if it stayed out of politics.

• Despite this agreement, Hitler did not honor the deal, and the Nazis tried to infiltrate the Church to spread Nazi propaganda.

Nazi Attempts to Suppress the Churches

• Reich Church banned the use of the Old Testament in religious services, calling it a ‘Jewish book.’

• 800 Pastors from the non-conforming Confessional Church were arrested and sent to concentration camps.

• The Nazis tried to ban the crucifix in Catholic churches and suppressed Catholic schools and youth groups.

• Catholic newspapers were banned, and 400 priests were sent to Dachau concentration camp.

Impact of Nazi Actions on Religion

• In 1937, Hitler restored the Protestant Church's leadership in exchange for the church's promise to stay out of politics.

• Attendance at Catholic churches increased under Nazi rule, especially during World War II, showing the failure of Nazi efforts to reduce religion's influence.

• Protestant and Catholic clergy played a key role in opposing the Nazi regime, often at great personal cost.

Opposition to the Nazi Regime from Churches, Youth Groups, and Workers

Definitions of Opposition and Resistance

• Opposition: Acts that openly defied the Nazi regime.

• Resistance: Active attempts to overthrow Hitler and the Nazis.

• The regime enjoyed significant popular support, partly due to propaganda and the benefits of stability and economic growth under Nazi rule.

Extent of Support for the Nazi Regime

• Nazi popularity: Nazis were the most popular party when they came to power, and many Germans welcomed the stability and economic growth brought by Hitler's authoritarian rule.

• Germans traded Weimar democracy for the security and prestige Hitler offered, especially through rearmament and dismantling of the Treaty of Versailles.

• Propaganda was particularly effective in winning over children and fostering Nazi ideology.

Opposition from the Churches

Protestant Church

• Martin Niemöller led the formation of the Confessional Church in opposition to Hitler’s Reich Church. He was imprisoned from 1937 to 1945, along with 800 other Protestant clergy.

• Dietrich Bonhöffer, another Protestant pastor, was involved in the 1944 bomb plot to assassinate Hitler and was executed.

• In 1937, Hitler restored the Protestant Church's independence in exchange for a guarantee that it would not engage in politics, similar to his Concordat with the Catholic Church.

Catholic Church

• Despite the Concordat of 1933, some Catholic priests opposed the Nazi regime.

• In 1937, the Pope’s encyclical, "With Burning Concern", condemned Hitler, calling him a "mad prophet with repulsive arrogance."

• Archbishop von Galen successfully led a campaign to end the Nazi euthanasia program against mentally-disabled people.

• 400 Catholic priests were imprisoned in Dachau concentration camp for opposing Nazi policies.

Opposition from Youth Groups

• Edelweiss Pirates: A youth group based in the Rhineland that opposed the strict discipline of the Hitler Youth by singing anti-Nazi songs and defacing Nazi symbols. In 1944, they killed the Gestapo chief in Cologne, leading to the public hanging of 12 members.

• White Rose Group: Formed by students at Munich University in 1943, they distributed anti-Nazi leaflets and organized protests. Leaders Hans and Sophie Scholl were arrested and executed by guillotine.

• Swing Youth and Jazz Youth: These groups rejected Nazi values, drank alcohol, and danced to jazz music, which the Nazis condemned as "degenerate." The Gestapo closely monitored and raided their illegal jazz clubs.

Opposition from Workers

• Workers' resistance: Workers often led opposition against the regime, organizing strikes, posting anti-Nazi posters, and graffiti, often supported by Communists.

• Many industrial workers were arrested for their actions; in Dortmund, most of the men imprisoned were industrial workers.

• Workers organized strikes in 1935 over high food prices and during the Berlin Olympics in 1936.

1944 Bomb Plot

• A group of army officers, led by Colonel Stauffenberg, attempted to assassinate Hitler with a bomb at a meeting. Though the bomb exploded, Hitler survived.

• In retaliation, Stauffenberg was shot the same day, and 5,000 people were executed in the subsequent crackdown.

The persecution of minorities

Nazi Racial Beliefs

• Aryan superiority: The Nazis believed that Aryans were the master race, while other races, particularly Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals, and the disabled, were considered inferior or "untermensch" (sub-human).

• Eugenics: Nazi ideology embraced eugenics, the belief that the human race could be improved by preventing those with disabilities or hereditary diseases from reproducing. This led to extensive policies of sterilization and euthanasia.

Policies of Persecution

1. Sterilization:

   • Groups such as the mentally and physically disabled, the deaf, and those with hereditary diseases were sterilized to prevent them from reproducing, as part of a strategy to "purify" the Aryan race.

2. Murder of People with Disabilities:

   • The Nazis initiated an euthanasia program, which was not about relieving suffering but a state-sponsored murder campaign aimed at people with disabilities. Over 200,000 disabled individuals were murdered.

3. Concentration Camps:

   • The Nazis sent various persecuted groups to concentration camps, including homosexuals, prostitutes, Jehovah's Witnesses, Gypsies, pacifists, beggars, and criminals. During World War Two, 85% of Germany's Gypsies perished in these camps.

The Persecution of Jews

The Jews were the most heavily persecuted group in Nazi Germany, facing escalating discrimination and violence leading up to the Final Solution during World War II.

Key Events:

1. 1933:

   • Boycott of Jewish businesses: Nazis organized boycotts to damage Jewish livelihoods.

   • Book burnings: Books by Jewish authors were publicly burned.

   • Jewish professionals dismissed: Jewish civil servants, lawyers, and teachers were fired.

   • Race science lessons: Schools introduced lessons portraying Jews as sub-human.

2. 1935 – Nuremberg Laws:

   • Stripping of citizenship: Jews were stripped of German citizenship.

   • Marriage ban: Jews were prohibited from marrying or having sexual relations with Germans.

   • Civil rights removal: Jews were denied all civil and political rights.

3. 1938:

   • Jews were banned from becoming doctors.

   • Jews were forced to add "Israel" (men) or "Sarah" (women) to their names.

   • Kristallnacht (November 9, 1938): The SS organized a violent pogrom, attacking Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues after the assassination of a German ambassador by a Jew. This event marked a significant turning point in Jewish persecution.

Impact of Kristallnacht:

• Kristallnacht led many Jews to realize that their situation in Germany was becoming untenable. Their businesses, homes, and synagogues were destroyed, leading to a wave of Jewish emigration. The Kindertransport program was established, allowing Jewish children to be evacuated to Britain.

4. 1939:

   • Jews were banned from owning businesses or radios.

   • By the start of World War II, Jews were stateless, economically marginalized, and lived in fear for their safety.

These measures represented a systematic escalation of oppression, culminating in the mass genocide of Jews during the Holocaust.

The nature of the Nazi Government

Ideological Foundations from Mein Kampf:

1. Führer Principle:

   • The Nazi state was centered around the belief that there should be a single, all-powerful leader (Führer) who wielded complete control over the country and its political party. This created a dictatorship with Hitler at the top.

2. Racism:

   • According to Nazi ideology, Germans were the "Master Race" descended from the Aryans. Jews, Slavs, and other non-Aryans were considered subhuman. Hitler's racial policies demanded the removal or enslavement of these groups to maintain racial purity.

3. Lebensraum (Living Space):

   • The Nazis believed Germany needed to expand territorially to provide living space for the growing Aryan population. This policy justified German expansion into Eastern Europe.

4. Autarky:

   • Hitler's vision for Germany included economic self-sufficiency, so the nation would not be dependent on imports. This was aimed at making Germany resistant to external economic pressures or blockades.

Control of Germany: Fear and Oppression

After Hitler declared himself Führer in 1934, following President Hindenburg's death, he implemented policies to ensure the Nazi Party remained in power. The regime relied heavily on fear and intimidation to suppress dissent.

The Gestapo (Secret Police), April 1933

• Surveillance and Intelligence: The Gestapo was the secret police responsible for rooting out opposition to the Nazis. With over 150,000 informants, they monitored civilian activities and reported any anti-Nazi sentiment.

• Secret Operations: The Gestapo did not wear uniforms, making it impossible for ordinary Germans to know when they were being spied on. This pervasive surveillance created a constant state of fear.

• Arrest and Detainment: The Gestapo could arrest individuals deemed enemies of the state, subject them to brutal interrogations, and imprison or release them without formal charges.

• People’s Courts: These courts were established to ensure Nazi enemies were convicted of treason and sent to concentration camps or executed.

The SS (Schutzstaffel)

• By 1934, the SS was responsible for protecting Nazi Germany from internal and external threats. They also managed the concentration camps, where individuals labeled as undesirable were imprisoned.

• Concentration Camps: The first camp was established at Dachau in 1933. Life in these camps was brutal, with prisoners subjected to forced labor and harsh conditions. Prisoners were drawn from groups the Nazis considered enemies of the state, including:

  • Political opponents (e.g., communists and socialists)

  • Homosexuals

  • Criminals

  • Gypsies (Romani people)

  • Jewish people

  • Religious figures (clergy who opposed the regime)

  • Outspoken critics (e.g., journalists, artists)

Impact of Fear

• The arrest and disappearance of thousands of individuals, many of whom later reappeared with horrific tales of concentration camps, spread terror throughout the population. The brutal conditions in the camps, as well as the unpredictability of the Gestapo's surveillance, paralyzed dissent. Germans were too afraid to oppose the regime, leading to very little organized resistance in the 1930s.

Control through propaganda and censorship

Role of Josef Goebbels

• Minister of Propaganda: Appointed in 1933, Goebbels aimed to brainwash the German populace into obeying the Nazis and idolizing Hitler.

Propaganda Techniques

1. Media Control:

   • Goebbels exercised total control over all forms of media and the arts to disseminate Nazi ideology.

   • Censorship: Non-Nazi viewpoints and anti-Nazi content were systematically censored across newspapers, radio, cinema, and theatre. Only publications that aligned with Nazi beliefs were permitted, leading to the banning and public burning of many books starting in May 1933.

2. Public Events:

   • Nuremberg Rallies: Held annually from 1933, these rallies were grand spectacles that glorified the military and the concept of war, serving as a show of strength for the Nazi regime.

   • 1936 Berlin Olympics: Designed to demonstrate the superiority of the Aryan race and showcase German athleticism to the world.

3. Mass Media:

   • Radios: Inexpensive radios were widely distributed to ensure that Nazi messages reached a broad audience. Public loudspeakers broadcasted speeches and propaganda.

   • Visual Propaganda: Hitler’s image was omnipresent, portraying him as Germany’s savior. The regime used simple, impactful slogans to communicate their ideology, such as:

     • "Free Germany from the Jews"

     • "Work and Bread"

     • "Smash Communism"

     • "Blood and Soil"

     • "One People, One Empire, One Leader"

Censorship Measures

• The regime enforced strict censorship to suppress dissent and control public perception:

  • Newspapers, films, and plays that presented anti-Nazi ideas were banned.

  • Only literature that supported Nazi ideology was allowed, creating a controlled narrative that aligned with the party’s goals.

Control of Religion

• Threat Perception: Hitler viewed religion as a potential challenge to Nazi control over the population's thoughts and beliefs.

1. Catholic Church:

   • The Catholic Youth League was disbanded, and many Catholic priests were arrested.

   • Religious education was prohibited.

2. Protestant Church:

   • The Reich Church was established, led by Nazi-appointed bishops to align Protestantism with Nazi ideology.

   • Non-conforming clergy, such as Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhöffer, were imprisoned in concentration camps for opposing the regime.

This systematic approach to propaganda and control ensured that the Nazi message permeated all aspects of life in Germany, effectively silencing opposition and consolidating Hitler's power.

Nazi attitudes to Jewish people

• The Nazis treatment of the Jewish people came from their social and racial policies

• The Nazis believed that only Germans could be citizens and non-Germans shouldn’t have any citizenship rights.

• The Nazis racial philosophy taught that some races were ‘Untermenschen’ ('subhuman').

• Many scientists at this time believed people with disabilities or social problems were genetically less human and that their genes needed to be eliminated

As a result of these beliefs, the Nazis took the following actions:

• Tried to eliminate the Jewish people.

• Killed 85 per cent of Germany's gypsies.

• Sterilised black people.

• Killed mentally ill patients.

• Sterilised physically disabled people, eg deaf people, and people with hereditary diseases.

• Imprisoned people they regarded as anti-social in concentration camps. These included homosexuals, prostitutes, Jehovah's Witnesses, alcoholics, pacifists, beggars, hooligans and criminals.

Persecution of Jewish People in Nazi Germany (1930s)

The Nazis systematically escalated their persecution of Jewish people throughout the 1930s, culminating in increasingly oppressive laws and violent actions.

1933

• Removal from Public Office:

  • Jewish individuals were dismissed from professions, including civil servants, lawyers, and teachers.

• Education:

  • School lessons were altered to reflect the Nazi ideology, teaching that Jewish people were "Untermensch" (subhuman).

• April Boycott (1 April 1933):

  • A nationwide boycott of Jewish shops and businesses was initiated.

  • SA (Sturmabteilung) officers encouraged the public to avoid Jewish establishments, leading to vandalism of many Jewish businesses.

1935

• Nuremberg Laws (15 September):

  • Introduced at the Nuremberg Rally, these laws stripped Jews of many rights:

    • Loss of Citizenship: Jewish people were denied German citizenship.

    • Marriage Restrictions: Intermarriage and sexual relationships between Jews and non-Jews were outlawed.

1938

• Professional Restrictions:

  • Jewish individuals were banned from practicing as doctors.

• Identity Regulations:

  • Jewish people were required to carry identity cards stamped with a 'J'.

  • Jewish children were barred from attending school.

  • Jewish men were mandated to add "Israel" to their names, while women had to add "Sarah."

• Kristallnacht (9-10 November):

  • A nationwide pogrom against Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues.

  • Destruction:

    • Approximately 7,500 Jewish shops were vandalized or destroyed.

    • About 400 synagogues were burned.

  • Casualties:

    • Nearly 100 Jewish individuals were killed.

    • Around 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps.

1939

• Business Ownership:

  • Jewish people were prohibited from owning businesses.

• Establishment of Ghettos:

  • The first ghettos were opened in Eastern Europe, isolating Jewish populations from the rest of society.

• Star of David Emblem (23 November):

  • Jewish individuals were ordered to wear a Star of David emblem on their clothing, facilitating identification.

Impact of Persecution

• The relentless persecution created an atmosphere of fear among the general population.

• Many Germans were deterred from opposing the Nazi regime due to the fear of becoming targets themselves.

This systematic oppression not only dehumanized the Jewish people but also suppressed broader dissent within society.

Opposition to the Nazis

Those who spoke out against Hitler and his policies faced intimidation and threats from the Gestapo or imprisonment, and in some cases execution

Why was there little opposition to the Nazis?

• The 'Night of the Long Knives' had eliminated almost all opposition to Hitler within the Nazi Party.

• All other political parties had been banned in July 1933.

• Through censorship and propaganda, the Nazis eliminated opposition in the media.

• Economic opposition was eliminated as trade unions had been banned in May 1933.

• Germans lived in fear of being denounced by spies, interrogated by the Gestapo and sent to concentration camps.

• Many Germans genuinely believed that the Nazis were improving Germany. They saw the negative side as a ‘necessary evil’ if Germany was to be great again.

However, there were a few individuals and groups who openly opposed Hitler and his policies. The majority ended up in concentration camps, while many were killed.

Opposition from the church

• Some Catholic priests opposed Hitler. In 1937, the Pope issued a message called 'With Burning Concern' which was read in every Catholic Church. It described Hitler as “a mad prophet with repulsive arrogance”.

• The Catholic Archbishop of Munster led a successful campaign to end euthanasia of mentally-disabled people.

• Many Protestant pastors, led by Martin Niemöller, formed the Confessional Church in opposition to Hitler's Reich Church. Niemöller was held in a concentration camp during the period 1937-1945. Another Protestant pastor, Dietrich Bonhöffer, was linked to an assassination attempt against Hitler and was executed in 1945.

Opposition from youth

The Meuten

• The Meuten were gangs of working-class teenagers and young adults.

• They sympathised with socialist ideology.

• They were frequently attacked by Nazis, including the Hitler Youth.

The Swing Kids

• A youth movement that started in Hamburg in 1939 and spread to Berlin and other German cities.

• The movement was a challenge to Hitler announcing that all German adolescents had to join a Nazi youth movement.

• They challenged the Nazi image of youth by growing their hair and wearing fashionable clothes.

• They also listened to swing music, which was seen by the Nazis as Black music and met at secret dance halls. This often led to clashes with the Hitler Youth and the security forces.

The White Rose

• Formed by students at Munich University. They published anti-Nazi leaflets, but were discovered and executed in 1943.

The Edelweiss Pirates

• They painted anti-Nazi slogans, sheltered deserters and beat up Nazi officials. In 1944, the Cologne Pirates killed the Gestapo chief.