Liberalism: A Level Politics Edexcel

Locke: State

Rejected idea that people were 'subjects of the state'; a true state acts in peoples interests.

Social Contract (voluntary) (based on reason); rational people would not submit to arbitrary rule. If broken citizens can rebel (2nd am).

Limited gvt; state should serve individual. Should be limited by constitution & procedures (separation of powers).

"Without law there is no freedom".

Friedan: State

Legal change is the only realistic was to make progress; confrontation= counter-productive.

Legalisation & official regulations should criminalise discrimination; protect women.

Legal equality= tolerance.

Rawls: State

Enabling state due to theory of justice (must guarantee a life worth living) & bc of veil of ignorance (∴ must use state to increase equality).

State should increase condition of poor but NOT establish equality of outcome.

Mill: Economy

Doesn't directly write about economy but bc of his free market ideas it can be claimed he is pro the free market.

Income tax should be a flat tax (Thatcher).

Favoured inheritance tax; would increase equality of opportunity & assure everyone works harder creating a more meritocratic society.

These 2 are a contradiction in terms. Bridge between classical & modern liberals.

Rawls: Economy

Favoured property owning democracy= economic independence (rejected communism & unregulated capitalism).

Theory of Justice; need an enabling state to better conditions of the poor.

Wollstonecraft: Economy

Libertarian; supported Adam Smith no intervention policies = complete meritocracy.

Results in a stronger market (although she acknowledges issue of unemployment).

Reducing state power & ∴ the tyranny of the people (e.g through tax).

State needs to protect private property.

Mill: Human Nature

Harm principle (like negative freedom). Self-regarding & other-regarding human actions.

As an MP unsuccessfully campaigned for gender equality.

Tolerance (1st am).

Utilitarianism was human's sole motivation? (most ethical choice is the one that produces the most goods for the greatest number).

Individual= sovereign, but more votes to the educated will benefit all.

Majoraty opionion can be wrong as it holds no true authority.

Rawls: Human Nature

Veil of ignorance; humans= rational & empathetic (we instinctively want a fairer society).

People still want individual freedoms; although state will decrease wealth gap its effect will not be automatic.

Theory of justice.

Friedan: Human Nature

Its conditioning, not biology that women should stay at home; we must reject social ways.

We are equally rational ∴ it is illogical that we don't have gender equality.

Equality of opportunity as well as legal equality.

Wollstonecraft: Society

We need formal equality; gives self respect & helps women realise their potential.

Motherhood= respected career (if a choice).

Women should have full civil liberties & be able to have a career (rather than be economically dependent on men).

Marriage= equal partnership (therfore women can still have a career).

Women= rational & capable.

Friedan: Society

Legal equality; men & women are equally rational & so have equal capability, ∴ we must reject oppressive laws.

A shift in social attitude & increase opportunity is necessary (women in careers).

Equality of Opportunity; women restricted in their choices bc of social conditioning.

Rawls: Society

Theory of Justice.

Veil of ignorance; to create a just society individuals need formal, social & economic equality.

Humans= rational & empathetic ∴ would want to create a society where the poor receive better treatment.

Humans= altruistic, ∴ state only needed some extent to reduce rich/poor gap.

Liberal democracy= Contradiction

Classical= Negative. Modern= Positive freedom.

Classical= Laissez Faire market & nightwatchmen state. Modern= Keynesian economics & enabling state.

Classical= tax is state robbery & infringes on individual freedom. Modern= tax allows people to achieve positive freedom.

Liberal democracy= Continuation

Individualism: individual prioritised over group.

Optimistic view of human nature; each individual has ability to reason (is self-aware & have free will to shape their own destiny).

Advocate tolerance as a natural right.

Capitalism; strengthens natural right to private property, but also benefits everyone in society.

Individualism

Human nature; all unique with equal worth (should not be used as objects).

State; developmental individualism justifies limited state intervention to help disadvantaged.

Tolerance is a natural right.

Modern= developmental individual (∴ enabling state).

Classical= egoistical individual (people= self-seeking & self-reliant).

Freedom

Human nature; individual freedom is a human need.

State; freedom is not absolute & ∴ must be exercised under the laws of the state.

Society; human actions driven primarily by a desire to pursue pleasure & avoid pain, gvt should only intervene on the 'harm principle' ('Greatest happiness for the greatest numbers'; Bentham)

The state

'Neccessary Evil'; prevents social disorder & exploitation of vulnerable; bc human nature= self seeking & infringes on individualism.

Oppose concentration of power (bc people=self interested); devolution & federalism.

Limited gvt on constitutionalism; separation of powers, checks/balances, bill of rights.

Rationalism

Humans should be guided by reason not emotion.

Enlightenment thinking; rejected unquestioning acceptance of tradition & religion.

Humans NEED to be free; to make self-interested decisions without being directed by external agencies (state, church).

Supports a progressive society; personal development promotes wider social advancement.

Reasoned discussion to resolve disputes.

Equality/Social Justice

Individuals are of equal value; ∴ should be treated fairly & impartially by society; have same essential nature & ∴ are equal.

Formal equality.

Some social equality= acceptable (but different talents deserve different rewards; meritocracy).

Equality of opportunity; humans have different abilities & potentials they should be free to fulfil; Modern= state intervention= acceptable to support equality.

Foundational Equality.

Liberal Democracy

Free elections, neutral state with limited powers, toleration.

Gvt lacks legitimacy without support of the people; ∴ social contract.

Democracy= values view of majority (stifles individualism), but increases participation so promotes personal growth & development.

Negative Freedom

Mill, Wollstonecraft.

Endorses egoistical individual.

Maximum freedom bc minimum state power.

Reliance on state= low self respect & undermines drive (bc dependent).

Nightwatchman state; essential obligation= protect property. Individuals behaviour unrestricted as long as there is social stability (harm principle).

Positive Freedom

Rawls.

Freedom= self realisation

Developmental individual; should be promoted in society by interventionist state & managed economy.

Potential can be assisted by the state (alleviate poverty).

Formal equality does not lead to equality of opportunity bc allows inequalities (wealth) to prevent real equality of opportunity.

Mechanistic theory

State was created by the people, to serve the people (Lincoln 'gvt of the people, by...')

Social Darwinism

Classical Liberals= 'Survival of the fittest'. Individual success = result of ability to act in current economic conditions; people should NOT be supported by welfare.

Meritocracy.

Constitutionalism

Power of a gvt should be pre-defined to avoid any type of tyranny.

Power should be decentralised (bc humans= self seeking).

State should guarantee rights & protect liberties.

Adam Smith 'Invisible Hand'

As long as the state adopts a hands-off approach, wealth will trickle down through society (fair).

All tariffs & duties should be removed to promote free-trade internationally; this will bring about a 'wealth of nations' which has mutual benefit = egoistical individualism & human rationalism.

Keynes & State Intervention

(E.g) Roosevelt 'New Deal' 1930's.

UK gvt 1945-79.

Bc free market is prone to ups & downs (mass unemployment &∴ decreased individual freedom).

Gvt intervention regulates demand & delivers stability & growth.

Prevents economic depression which would lead to illiberal regimes.

Mill: Book

1859 'On Liberty'

Rawls: Book

1971 'A theory of justice'

Wollstonecraft: Book

1792 'A vindication of the rights of women'

Locke: Book

1689 'Two treatises on government'

Friedan: Book

1963 'The Feminine Mystique'