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PSY2012 Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (5th edition)
Mirror neuron
A type of brain cell that responds both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by others, playing a crucial role in understanding social behaviors and empathy.
Unconditioned response
A natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior learning or conditioning.
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.
Conditioned response
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to trigger a conditioned response.
Shaping
A process in operant conditioning where successive approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced until the complete behavior is achieved.
Latent inhibition
The reduced ability to learn a new association to a stimulus that has previously been experienced without any consequences.
Discovery learning
A constructivist learning theory where students learn by exploring and problem-solving, rather than through direct instruction.
Illusory correlations
A cognitive bias where a perceived relationship between two events or variables is believed to exist, even when no such relationship exists. (Phobias)
Reinforcement
Increases desired behavior. (Positive = adding good stimuli, negative = removing bad stimuli)
Punishment
Decreases undesired behavior (Positive = adding bad stimuli, negative = removing good stimuli)
Law of effect
The principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to occur.
Higher-order conditioning
A learning process in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus to create a second conditioned response.
Observational learning
Learning that occurs through observing and imitating others' behaviors, rather than through direct experience.
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause, following extinction, indicating that the learned behavior is not entirely forgotten.
Variable ratio
A reinforcement schedule in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to high and steady rates of response. (Highest rate of responding)
Variable interval
A reinforcement schedule in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, promoting a steady rate of response.
Cognitive map
A mental representation of one's physical environment, allowing for navigation and understanding of spatial relationships.
Latent learning
A type of learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior, often revealed when a reward is introduced.
Primary reinforcers
Stimulus that is naturally rewarding and biological. (Food, water)
Secondary reinforcers
Stimulus that gains its reinforcing value through association with a primary reinforcer (money, praise).
Preparedness
The idea that we are predisposed by evolution to fear some stimuli more than others, even without bad experiences with those stimuli in real life.
Operant conditioning
A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment, influencing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. (Instrumental conditioning)
Sensitization
An increased reaction to a stimulus after exposure to a strong or noxious stimulus, leading to heightened sensitivity.
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, leading to diminished sensitivity.
Extinction
The process through which a previously conditioned response decreases or disappears when reinforcement is no longer provided.
