AP Psych Unit 1

Neurons

individual nerve cells responsible for receiving and transmitting electrochemical information

Glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Somatic nervous system

responsible for voluntary movement of large skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system

controls the nonskeletal or smooth muscles, such as those of the heart and digestive tract

Reuptake

after the neurotransmitters stimulate the receptors on the receiving neuron, the chemicals are taken back up into the sending neuron to be used again

Afferent neurons

sensory

Efferent neurons

motor

Reflexes

a certain small movements are controlled by direct transmissions from afferent to efferent cells

Sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight response; automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilates pupils, slows down digestion

Parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and digest response; automatically slows heart rate and breathing slow down, pupils constrict and digestion speeds up

Interneurons

Neurons that communicate between sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.

All-or-nothing principle

it either happens or it doesn’t

Resting potential

The interior of the cell is negatively charged and exterior of the cell is positively charged

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

serve to excite the cell or cause the neuron to fire

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibit or stop cell firing

Action potential

Positive charges go in and negative charges go out. → depolarization

This change in membrane potential leads to the eventual release of the neurotransmitter

Refractory period

The short time after a neuron fires an action potential which it cannot fire again, no matter how strong the stimulus is

Multiple sclerosis

a disorder in which the body’s immune system attacks the protective covering of the nerve cells (myelin sheath), which can lead to vision problems, tiredness, and other problems

Dopamine (inhibitory)

associated with movement, attention, and reward; schizophrenia and parkinson’s disease

Serotonin (inhibitory)

related to arousal, mood, and hunger regulation, and sleep; hallucinations and depression

Norepinephrine (excitatory)

affects levels of alertness; anxiety and depression

Glutamate (excitatory)

associated with basis of learning and long-term memory; overstimulation of brain

GABA (inhibitory)

regulates sleep-wake cycles; sleep and eating disorders and anxiety

Acetylocholine

affects memory function, muscle functions, and attention; muscle spasms and Alzheimer’s disease

Endorphins (inhibitory)

body’s painkillers; artificial highs and potential involvement in addictino

Substance P (Excitatory)

linked to pain perception and mood and learning; chronic pain and inability to feel pain

Endocrine system

sends hormones as messages through the bloodstream instead of across synapses

Pituitary gland (master gland)

• releases hormones that regulate other glands

• produces growth hormones and oxytocin

• controlled through the nervous system by the nearby brain area

Melatonin

a hormone involved with sleep and controlled by the level of light

Oxytocin

a hormone involved with sexual arousal, romantic attachment, and parental bonding. It increases trust, affection, and cooperation

Adrenal glands

fight-or-flight reactions

• connected to the autonomic nervous system

Leptin

satiety hunger

Ghrelin

increases hunger

Cerebellum

controls muscle tone and balance, coordination of movement, and some procedural learning

Medulla

controls the most basic functions, such as breathing, digestion, and heartbeat

Reticular activating system

• controls arousal (alertness) from coma to wide awake.

• controls some voluntary movement and eye movement

• learning, emotion, and cognition

Hippocampus

involved in processing and integrating memories. It doesn’t eliminate existing memories but prevents forming new info → anterograde amnesia

Amygdala

expression of anger, frustration, and fear

Thalamus

relays sensory information; receives and directs sensory information except smell from the visual and auditory systems

Hypothalamus

controls the temperature and water balance of the body; controls hunger and sex drives; directs endocrine system via messages to the pituitary gland

Frontal lobes

high-order thinking and reasoning: accessing working memory, paying attnetion, solving problems, judgments and plans (front of the brain)

Parietal lobe

somatosensory information; receives information about temperature, pressure, texture, and pain (top of the brain)

Occipital lobes

visual areas; receive visual information from the opposite visual field (back of the brain)

Temporal lobes

auditory processing areas; processing speech and appreciating music (near the ears)

Association areas

any area not dealing with our senses or muscle movements

Wernicke’s Area

• left temporal lobe

• comprehension of speech, interpreting sounds

• Wernicke’s aphasia: receptive aphasia

Broca’s Area

• left frontal lobe

• expressive aphasia: loss of the ability to speak

• mainly verbs and nouns, but no conjunctions

Brain plasticity

the ability for our brains fo form new connections after the neurons are damaged

Contralateral processing

the ability of non split brains to use both hemispheres and integrate information between them via the corpus callosum

Corpus callosum

a band of connective nerve fibers between two hemispheres

EEG

electroencephalogram, which measures subtle changes in brain electrical activity through electrodes

→ seizures and sleep

fMRI

functional MRi, which reveals brain activity and function rather than structure

Lesioning

cutting into the brain and look for change

Left hemisphere

• thoughts and locis

• details such as trees

• language: word and definition

Right hemisphere

• feelings and intuition

• Big picture such as forest

• Language: tone, inflection, context

• whole

Consciousness

the awareness of ourselves and our environment