General Knowledge

Abigail Adams

(1744-1818) - Wife of John Adams (second president), mother to John Quincy Adams (sixth president). Wrote to her husband while he was a delegate in the Continental Congress. In the letters, discussed political theory and women’s rights.

Charles Francis Adams

(1807-1886) - son of president John Quincy Adams and grandson of president John Adams. Known as a politician, writer, and diplomat to the United Kingdom. Founded the Free-Soil Party to advocate for abolition.

Fisher Ames

(1758-1808) - First House Representative for Massachusetts (MA) serving from 1789 to 1797. A leader of the Federalist Party who supported policies favoring New England and was outspoken and eloquent critic of the Jeffersonian Republicans.

Benjamin Austin

(1752-1820) - MA, prolific writer that attacked John Adams'' administration via articles for the Independent Chronicle that were widely reprinted. Served in the MA legislature and was a defender of the Republican Party and the Jefferson administration.

Benjamin Franklin Bache

(1769-1798) - Grandson of Benjamin Franklin and a publisher who founded the Philadelphia Aurora newspaper. The paper supported Jeffersonian Republican ideology and attached many Federalist leaders and actions, including the Alien and Sedition Acts passed by President John Adams.

Gamaliel Bailey

(1807-1859) - Prominent abolitionist and editor; he published his antislavery articles in The Philanthropist, The National Era, and helped to publish Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. He also assisted Dred Scott by paying his legal fees.

Benjamin Banneker

(1731-1806) - Free Black man noted for his writings about math and science and was involved in surveying the layout of Washington, D.C. Also corresponded with President Jefferson about racial rights and slavery, specifically calling out Jefferson for hypocrisy for his words n the Declaration of Independence.

Phillip Barbour

(1783-1841) - Republican Congressman from Virginia, speaker of the House, and justice of the U.S. Supreme Court nominated by President Jackson after John Marshall’s death. He unsuccessfully represented Virginia in the Supreme Court case Cohens v. Virginia as a supporter of states’ rights.

William T. Barry

(1784 - 1835) - Politician, congressmember, governor, postmaster general, and ambassador to Spain. Statesman for Kentucky as a House rep., senator, and governor. Served in President Jackson’s cabinet where he held significant power due to patronage and was the only member to not resign after the Petticoat Affair involving Peggy Eaton.

James Bayard

(1767 - 1815) - Politician and statesman representing Delaware in the House and Senate between 1797 and 1813. Prominent Federalist who impacted the contingent election of 1800 by his behind-the-scenes efforts and assisted in the negotiations of the Treaty of Ghent to end the War of 1812.

Lyman Beecher

(1775 - 1863) - Minister who advocated for temperance, women’s education, and abolition. Daughter was Harriet Beecher Stowe, who wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

John Bell

(1796 - 1869) - Key politician for Tennessee in the House and Senate and was a TN Democrat who was unique in not supported President Jackson after his first term. Became a Whig and was secretary of war under William Henry Harrison before resigning to protest Tyler’s leadership. After reentering the Senate, he voted against expanding slavery and the Compromise of 1850 before running for president in 1860 on the Constitutional Union Party ticket.

Thomas Hart Benton

(1782 - 1858) - Politician from Missouri who served in the House and Senate between 1821 and 1855. An ally and friend of Andrew Jackson’s after first opposing him and became a leader for the Democratic Party. Supported Manifest Destiny, annexation of Texas, and the Mexican-American War, then shifted his beliefs to oppose slavery.

John M. Berrien

(1781 - 1856) - Attorney general during President Jackson’s term and senator from Georgia between 1845 and 1852. As a Jacksonian Democrat, he supported states’ rights in the Nullification Crisis then resigned from office in 1831 after the Petticoat Affair.

Nicholas Biddle

(1786 - 1844) - Last president of the Second Bank of the U.S. before it was vetoed by President Jackson in 1832. Biddle was extremely successful in managing the bank before he and Clay unsuccessfully led the charge to renew its charter, which led to its veto and President Jackson removing its deposits, officially killing the bank.

James G. Birney

(1792 - 1857) - Published the abolitionist newspaper, The Philanthropist. As a member of the American Colonization Society, he advocated for the immediate abolition of slavery.

Francis Preston Blair

(1791 - 1876) - Important figure in national politics as a member of President Jackson’s Kitchen Cabinet while also pushing Democratic Party ideology as the editor for the Washington Globe. His thoughts on slavery changed, and he became a supporter of the Free-Soil Party and then the Republican Party.

Napoleon Bonaparte

(1769 - 1821) - Emperor of France from 1804 to 1814 after being a military commander during the French Revolution. He helped to modernize France and eventually sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803. His leadership was the cause for an extended period of warfare in Europe until his final removal from power in 1814.

Aaron Burr

(1756 - 1836) - A dynamic politician in his state who served as a senator and then the third vice president of the U.S. under President Jefferson. He is known for his famous duel that killed Alexander Hamilton in 1804. Burr was later charged with treason in 1807 for allegedly plotting to start an independent country but was acquitted.

William Carroll

(1788 - 1844) - Carroll served in the Tennessee militia then became the governor of Tennessee from 1821 to 1827. While in the military, he fought in the Creek War and War of 1812, serving under Andrew Jackson. He served six terms as governor, longer than anyone else in Tennessee.

Lewis Cass

(1782 - 1866) - A politician from Michigan who served in Congress as a House member and senator and was later the ambassador to France. He also served in the cabinet of President Jackson as secretary of war and was secretary of state under James Buchanan. He is known for supporting popular sovereignty as a way to solve the question of states’ rights on slavery. He was often considered as a nominee for president from the Democratic Party.

Samuel Chase

(1741 - 1811) - One of the founders and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed as a justice on the U.S. Supreme Court by President Washington. He used his position to excitedly enforce the Sedition Act. In 1804, the House voted to impeach Chase as a justice on grounds that he had political bias in his judicial rulings. He was acquitted in 1805 by the Senate.

DeWitt Clinton

(1769 - 1828) - A politician who served as a senator and governor of New York as well as mayor of New York City. During his governorship, he oversaw the construction of the Erie Canal as he advocated for the positive impact from infrastructure improvements. He was the nephew of George Clinton and ran for president unsuccessfully in 1812 and was briefly considered in 1824.

George Clinton

(1739 - 1812) - One of the founders who served in the Continental Army then later opposed the ratification of the Constitution. He was the politician who served as the governor of New York and vice president of the U.S. under President Jefferson and President Madison.

William Crawford

(1772 - 1834) - A politician who served as a senator from Georgia, ambassador to France, and cabinet member. He was secretary of war under President Madison then moved into the role of secretary of treasury under President Madison, Monroe, and John Quincy Adams. He was a candidate in the presidential election of 1824 but lost the election when the House elected John Quincy Adams as the president, largely due to concerns about his repeated health issues.

Frederick Douglass

(1817 - 1895) - Born into slavery, escaped, and became a prominent abolitionist and civil rights activist. He wrote several autobiographies about his experiences as an enslaved person which strengthened the abolition movement. He was an outspoken advocate for universal suffrage.

Stephen Douglas

(1813 - 1861) - A politician for the Democratic Party who served in Congress as a representative and senator for Illinois. He gained popularity in the 1850s with his passage of the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which promoted popular sovereignty to navigate the issue of expanding slavery into territories. His debate with Lincoln in 1858 eventually divided the Democratic Party over slavery, which allowed Lincoln to win the presidential election in 1860 where Douglas was the candidate of the northern wing of his party.

William Duane

(1760 - 1835) - A journalist and activist for Irish immigrants. He was a supporter of the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans then the Jacksonian Democratic Party. He published articles opposing the Alien and Sedition Acts and the central bank.

Thomas Earle

(1796 - 1849) - A politician, journalist, and abolitionist. He ran as the vice president candidate in 1840 under the Liberty Party, which eventually morphed into the Republican Party. He advocated for abolition and voting rights for Black people.

John Eaton

(1790 - 1856) - Served as senator for Tennessee and secretary of war under President Jackson after supporting him vigorously during the 1824 campaign by authoring the Wyoming Letters. He is associated with the Petticoat Affair in which his wife, Peggy, was refused to be socialized with by other cabinet member's wives. He resigned from the affair and was named governor of Florida and minister to Spain.

Margaret O’Neale Timberlake Eaton

(1799 - 1879) - Wife of John Eaton who served as the secretary of war for President Jackson and was involved in the Petticoat Affair. Their marriage occurred quickly after her first husband's death, which led to rumors of infidelity; the other cabinet member's wives refused to socialize with her. President Jackson supported her, which led to most of the cabinet members being removed from office.

George Henry Evans

(1805 - 1856) - He immigrated to the U.S. in 1820 and started a newspaper, the Working Man's Advocate, by 1829. He helped found the Workingmen's Party and through his newspaper and his book History of the Origin and Progress of the Working Men's Party he pushed for reforms that favored labor.

John Fenno

(1751 - 1798) - A publisher for the Gazette of the United States who published Federalist Papers supporting the ratification of the Constitution. The paper continued to publish political articles discussing the government's actions and was a major ca mpaign outlet during the election of 1796.

John Floyd

(1783 - 1837) - A politician that represented Virginia in the House of Representatives and as Governor. In the presidential election of 1832, Calhoun selected him as the Nullifiers Party's candidate. He advocated for state's rights and the gradual abolition of enslaved people after Nat Turner's Rebellion.

Phillip Freneau

(1752 - 1832) - A writer, poet, and editor of the National Gazette which supported the Jeffersonian Republican policies. His nickname "The Poet of the American Revolution" is from his anti-British writings after being held prisoner on a British ship during the war.

Albert Gallatin

(1761 - 1849) - A founder, congressmember for Pennsylvania, cabinet member, and foreign minister. He was an Anti-Federalist and Republican who advocated for reduced government spending yet helped finance the Louisiana Purchase. He served as secretary of treasury under President Jefferson and Madison and helped steer the Republican Party.

William Lloyd Garrison

(1805 - 1879) - A journalist and ardent abolitionist. He published the antislavery newspaper The Liberator beginning in 1831 to spread awareness and push for the 13th amendment. After achieving abolition, he pushed for women's rights and equality.

Edmond-Charles Genét

(1763 - 1834) - Known as Citizen Genét, the French envoy to the U.S. from 1793-94. The Citizen Genét affair began when he came to South Carolina to commission privateers to assist the French then he marched to Philadelphia to meet with President Washington. After gaining quite a bit of support and commandeering British ships, an arrest warrant was issued for him. He obtained asylum from Washington and continued to promote French assistance.

Elbridge Gerry

(1744 - 1814) - A politician for Massachusetts in Congress and the vice president under President Madison. He is best known for signing the Declaration of Independence yet refusing to sign the Constitution. He redrew the districts for Massachusetts in a salamander shape which led to the coining of the term "Gerrymandering" which is still used today in politics.

Stephen Girard

(1750 - 1831) - A wealthy financier that supported the U.S. financially during the War of 1812 by saving the First Bank of the U.S.

Duff Green

(1791 - 1875) - A politician and editor of The United States Telegraph, which supported Democratic candidates such as President Jackson as he was a member of the Kitchen Cabinet. Later in life, he was associated with the Credit Mobilier Scandal.

Angelina Grimké

(1805 - 1879) - A prominent abolitionist and women's rights advocate who worked alongside her sister, Sarah Moore Grimke. She was born into a family that enslaved people, but believed in abolition and many of her letters were published in antislavery newspapers.

Jared Ingersoll

(1749 - 1822) - A lawyer and politician serving Pennsylvania. He signed the Constitution and was a supporter of the Federalist Party. He argued some of the first cases before the Supreme Court.

John Jay

(1745 - 1829) - A founding father, foreign minister, cabinet member, governor, and the first chief justice of the Supreme Court. Jay was a leader of the Federalist Party who supported the ratification of the U.S. Constitution while anonymously publishing essays in support of the Constitution, known as the Federalist Party. As the first chief justice of the Supreme Court, he helped negatiate the somewhat infamous Jay Treaty with Britain in 1794.

Richard Mentor Johnson

(1780 - 1850) - An unruly and controversial politician that served Kentucky in the House and Senate before serving as vice president under President Van Buren. He was the only vice president elected by the Senate. He served in the military during the War of 1812, which assisted his political career as he claimed to have killed Tecumseh. Johnson was also unique in that he had a common law marriage that he acknowledged with an enslaved woman. He was a candidate for the Democratic nomination in 1844 but was unsuccessful.

Amos Kendall

(1789 - 1869) - A significant political player that served as President Jackson and Van Buren's postmaster general and was editor of the newspaper, Argus of Western America. He was also a member of Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet that advised him throughout his presidency.

James Kent

(1763 - 1847) - A lawyer and justice serving on the New York Supreme Court. He lectured and wrote about international law, personal law, property law, and civil law, which was combined and published as the Commentaries on American Law, 4 vol. His writing were some of the most influential in framing legal precedents in the U.S. and would influence other countries as well.

Rufus King

(1755 - 1827) - A lawyer, diplomat, and founder that signed the U.S. Constitution. He served as a senator for Massachusetts and foreign minister to Great Britain. He ran unsuccessfully for president in 1804 and 1808 as a Federalist but worked alongside the Republicans.

William Berkeley Lewis

(1784 - 1866) - A valued friend and key political advisor to President Jackson even though he was slightly in favor of the Second Bank of the U.S. He was also influential in deciding the famous toast at the Jefferson Day Dinner in 1830 during the Nullification Crisis.

Nathaniel Macon

(1757 - 1837) - A politician that represented North Carolina in Congress and served as the leader of both chambers. He opposed internal improvements and the Force Bill during the Nullification Crisis while supporting slavery and the War of 1812. He also had bills named for him (written by Gallatin) that would end the embargoes of the Madison administration.

Dolley Madison

(1768 - 1849) - The first lady of the U.S. from 1809 to 1817 as the wife of James Madison. She helped establish the role and title of first lady. During the War of 1812, she is credited with saving a portrait of George Washinton and other documents shortly before the British set fire to the White House.

William Marcy

(1786 - 1857) - The leader of the New York state political machine from around 1820 until his death. He headed the Albany Regency with Martin Van Buren and served as governor of New York, secretary of war during the Mexican-American War, and secretary of state under Franklin Pierce.

John Marshall

(1755 - 1835) - A lawyer, congressmember, supporter of the Constitution, diplomat that took part in the XYZ Affair, secretary of state, and most notably the chief justice of the Supreme Court. He was appointed as a "midnight judge" by President Adams, serving from 1801 until his death in 1835. Marshall's judicial rulings established judicial review which empowered the courts to strike down laws as unconstitutional and elevated the Judicial Branch as a co-equal authority in the U.S. government along with the Legislative and Executive. As a federalist justice, his rulings tended to support a strong federal government and national supremacy.

George McDuffie

(1790 - 1851) - A politician that served as a representative, senator, and governor of South Carolina. He supported nullification of federal laws and opposed internal improvements. During the Nullification Crisis, he served as a delegate in the convention to oppose the Tariff of Abominations.

Louis McLane

(1786 - 1857) - A lawyer and politician that served as a congress member for Delaware, cabinet member under President Jackson, and foreign minister. McLane assisted President Jackson in the Bank War to veto the Bank but was forced to resign as secretary of treasury when he would not assist with the withdrawal of its funds.

Shadrach Minkins

(1814 - 1875) - Was born into slavery and escaped to Boston in 1850 as the Fugitive Slave Act was passed. He hid as he was sought as a violator of the Fugitive Slave Act, and several abolitionists argued his case then assisted in his escape to Canada. The abolitionists had forcefully freed him from detention and afterwards were then prosecuted, and President Filmore threatened to use federal troops to enforce the law.

James Monroe

(1758 - 1831) - The fifth president of the U.S. from 1817-25, after the War of 1812 and during the "Era of Good Feelings." He was a Republican that also served in Congress, as a foreign minister, as governor, and cabinet member. During his term as president, the Adams-Onis Treaty, Missouri Compromise, and Monroe Doctrine were some significant events.

Ely Moore

(1798 - 1860) - An editor, union leader, and representative. He led the General Trades Union in New York which combined multiple trades together to collectively bargain for better working conditions.

William Morgan

(1774 - presumed dead 1826) - A former Mason that threatened to publish a book exposing some of the Freemasons secrets. He was arrested and disappeared soon afterwards; theories arose that he was kidnapped and killed by Masons to protect their secrets.

Lucretia Mott

(1793 - 1880) - A women's rights activist and abolitionist. She led the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 which wrote the Declaration of Sentiments stating women's desire for suffrage. She was also an avid abolitionist and assisted in the Underground Railroad.

Timothy Pickering

(1745 - 1829) - A politician that represented Massachusetts in both chambers of Congress then served in President Washington and Adam's cabinet as secretary of state before being forced to resign due to his allegiance to Hamilton. Pickering was a Federalist that supported relations with Britain over France which led him to organize the Hartford Convention during the War of 1812. The convention led to the downfall of the Federalist Party.

Charles Pinckney

(1757 - 1824) - cousin to Charles Cotesworth, a founder and politician that served in both chambers of Congress for South Carolina. He was a Federalist until he disagreed with the Jay Treaty and became a leading Republican for which he was known as "blackguard Charlie" by detractors. He led the effort in 1800 to secure South Carolina's votes for Jefferson and Burr. He attempted to gain Spanish Florida at the time of the Louisiana Purchase but was unsuccessful.

Charles Cotesworth Pinckey

(1746 - 1825) - A founder, general in the American Revolution, foreign minister, vice presidential candidate in 1800, and the presidential candidate for the Federalist party in 1804 and 1808. Pinckney was foreign minister to France during the XYZ Affair that led to the Quasi-War with France.

Thomas Pinckney

(1750 - 1828) - A military officer who later served as foreign minister to Great Britain during President Washington's term. He negotiated Pinckney's Treaty with Spain which established the border between Spain and the U.S. Hamilton supported him over Adams in 1796.

James K. Polk

(1795 - 1849) - The 11th president the U.S. from 1845-49 after serving as governor and representative of Tennessee. Polk is known as a "dark horse" candidate for the Democratic Party in the election of 1844 and promised to only serve one term. During his term, he negotiated treaties with Britain over the Oregon Territory, won the Mexican-American War gaining the Mexican Cession territory, and achieved Manifest Destiny.

Sarah Polk

(1803 - 1891) - The wife and first lady of President James K. Polk. She was known to help her husband's career by being a gracious hostess while being a significant and influential advisor for him.

John Randolph

(1773 - 1833) - A politician who represented Virginia in Congress before being a foreign minister under President Jackson. He was a Jeffersonian Republican who split to create a new faction within the Republican Party known as the "Old Republicans." They supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution and reduced power of the federal government. He opposed the War of 1812 and the Missouri Compromise.

James Shields

(1806 - 1879) - A military officer and politician who served in Congress for Illinois, Minnesota, and Missouri. He was a member of the Democratic Party and the only individual to represent three different states in the U.S. Senate (Missouri-1879, Minnesota-1858, and Illinois-1849). He nearly dueled Abraham Lincoln before befriending him and served as a general in the Mexican-American War and later in the Civil War. He was born in Ireland.

Stephen Simpson

(1789 - 1854) - A soldier in the War of 1812 before shortly working in the First Bank of the United States. He went on to be the founder of the Columbian Observer which featured political articles including his essays as Brutus that attacked the Bank of the United States. He eventually became a leader of Philadelphia's Workingmen's Party.

Thomas Skidmore

(1790 - 1832) - A politician and reformer that helped start the Workingmen's Party then the Agrarian Party. As a reformer, he supported improved working conditions, expanded suffrage without property rights, public education, and the ending of debtors prisons. Before his death, he wrote letters describing his ideals in the newspaper, The Friend of Equal Rights.

Margaret Bayard Smith

(1778 - 1844) - An author and journalist who described the politics and society of Washington, D.C. during the new republic era. Her writings showed respect for the new government policies and dynamic relationships within the political sphere.

William Smith

(1762 - 1840) - A representative and senator from South Carolina who eventually moved to Alabama and served there as a long time representative in the state house. He supported slavery and state's rights, but often opposed Calhoun's nationalism in the early 1800s. His feud with Calhoun led him to support Jackson and he received an appointment to the Supreme Court which he declined.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

(1815 - 1902) - A women's rights activist who helped lead the Seneca Falls Convention which drafted the Declaration of Sentiments supporting women's right to vote. She was an abolitionist and social reformer.

Joseph Story

(1779 - 1845) - A lawyer, politician representing Massachusetts in Congress, and justice for the Supreme Court appointed by President Madison. His judicial rulings were a foundation for the legal system specifically protecting property rights in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee and the United States v. The Amistad.

James Tallmadge

(1778 - 1853) - Served in Congress as debates for allowing Missouri into statehood were waged, he proposed the Tallmadge Amendment which would admit Missouri as a free state. After the law failed, he declined to run for reelection

Roger B. Taney

(1777 - 1864) - A politician who served in the cabinet of President Jackson before being appointed as the chief justice of the U.S. after John Marshall died. Taney helped lead the charge against the National Bank in 1832 by moving from attorney general to treasury secretary after Jackson could not find his previous appointments willing to withdraw federal funds from the Bank of the United States. Taney's judicial controversial and derided ruling on the Dred Scott case in 1857 influenced state's rights and slavery's expansion.

Lewis Tappan

(1788 - 1873) - An abolitionist that helped the enslaved Africans aboard the Amistad. He and his brother secured legal assistance, funding, and public support for the enslaved Africans. After winning their freedom, he organized the return to Africa for those who wished to leave.

John Taylor (of Caroline)

(1753 - 1824) - A leading politician of national note who served in Congress for Virginia as a Jeffersonian Republican. He supported states' rights and liberalism as described in his several political books.

John W. Taylor

(1784 - 1854) - A member of the Democratic-Republican Party then National Republican Party and served in the House representing New York. He was speaker of the House during the debate on Missouri's statehood including the Tallmadge Amendment and Missouri Compromise. He criticized slavery and southern lawmakers that argued to protect it.

Alexis de Tocqueville

(1805 - 1859) - A French diplomat who came to America in the 1830s to study American democracy and society. He published two works that describe five aspects of life in the U.S. such as populism, egalitarianism, liberty, individualism, and laissez-faire.

Nat Turner

(1800 - 1831) - Was born into slavery and led a four-day long rebellion by enslaved and freed Black people in Virginia in 1831. In the aftermath, 60 people were killed, he was captured and executed. Before his execution, he told his story to his attorney who published his confessions.

John Tyler

(1790 - 1862) - A politician that served in Congress for Virginia, served as the governor of Virginia, and was the 10th president of the U.S. after William Henry Harrison's sudden death. Tyler was initially a Democrat but was elected in 1840 as the Whig vice president candidate after he opposed Jackson. During his term, he reverted back to supporting Democratic ideals and laws which dubbed his presidency the "Accidency" as he was expelled from the Whig Party during his presidency.

Stephen Van Rensselaer

(1764 - 1839) - Known as the "Last Patroon" for his massive real estate holdings for which he acted as a landlord. He was a politician in New York as a Federalist who was a key vote in the contingent election of 1824 that helped John Quincy Adams become president. He was an activist who supported higher education and became a philanthropist later in life.

Denmark Vesey

(1767 - 1822) Was born into slavery and bought his freedom, and he became a leader amongst the Black people of Charleston. In 1822, he was plotting to start a revolt which would free enslaved people and take them to Haiti, however, he and five others were arrested, tried, and executed. His attempted revolt led to harsh laws that limited the rights of free Blacks in the state.

David Walker

(1796 - 1830) - An ardent abolitionist and publisher of the newspaper Freedom's Journal and publication An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World. The newspaper was the first Black owned and operated newspaper and the Appeal called for unity and the abolition of slavery while describing the abuses of the enslaved people.

George Washington

(1732 - 1799) - A general during the American Revolution, founder, president of the Constitutional Convention, and the first president of the U.S. of America. During his two terms, he set many precedents that would be followed by future presidents and established a cabinet of advisors within his executive branch. The division amongst the cabinet members, Hamilton and Jefferson, would eventually morph into the first two political parties.

Thurlow Weed

(1797 - 1882) - A publisher that promoted Republican and then Whig Party ideology which helped Governor Seward, President Harrison, President Taylor, and presidential candidate Fremont during their elections. He supported the American System and abolition of slavery. His newspapers helped organize voter support for candidates which helped him gain political favors and create an effective political machine in New York.

Hugh Lawson White

(1773 - 1840) - A Democrat politician in Tennessee that served in the Senate; he supported states' rights and the Indian Removal Act while opposing the national bank and tariffs. During President Jackson's second term, he began moving towards the Whig ideology and supporting Henry Clay before being ousted from office by Democrats.

William Wirt

(1772 - 1834) - A lawyer who served as the Attorney General in President Monroe and Adam's cabinets. He represented the U.S. in Gibbons v. Ogden and the Cherokee in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia in 1831. Both cases led to future rulings that confirmed his arguments. He was the presidential nominee for the Anti-Masonic Party in 1832 winning Vermont.

Levi Woodbury

(1789 - 1851) - A politician and governor from New Hampshire then served as secretary of treasury in Jackson and Van Buren's cabinets before becoming a justice on the Supreme Court nominated to replace Story by President Polk. He was a member of the Democratic Party and wrote major opinions on several cases during his tenure in the Supreme Court.

Frances Wright

(1795 - 1852) - aka Fanny Wright, was an outspoken author, social reformer, and philosopher. SiShe founded utopian communities in Tennessee, fought for the abolition of slavery, and organized in support of working conditions and unions.

Silas Wright

(1795 - 1847) - A lawyer and politician who served in the federal government and state government. As a member of the Democratic Party and close friend of President Martin Van Buren, he supported Jackson's policies and was a vice presidential candidate in the election of 1844.

John Adams

(1735 - 1826)

• “Bonny Johnny”, “His Rotundity”, “Atlas of Independence”, “Sage of Quincy”

• Laid the foundation for the U.S., abhorred partisanship and parties.

• Initially was a lawyer and outspoken critic of the Stamp Act and other acts of Parliament, believing it breached the principles of representative government.

• Defended the British troops put on trial after the Boston Massacre in 1770.

• 1774: Represented Massachusetts at the First Continental Congress

• Financially supported the Continental Army and assisted in writing the Declaration of Independence

• Worked with TJ, BF, and JJ to draft the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Was the first ambassador for the U.S. in Great Britain in 1785.

• First VP, second P of the U.S.

• Responsible for the Quasi-War, the Additional Army, the XYZ Affair and the Alien and Sedition Acts.

• Lost the Election of 1800 due to Alexander Hamilton undercutting him and supporting Charles Cotesworth Pinckey instead, and AH publically attacked him.

• Filled new judgeships created by the Judiciary Act of 1801 with his “Midnight Judges.”, including nominating Secretary of State John Marshall as the chief justice.

John Quincy Adams

(1767 - 1848)

• “Old Man Eloquent”

• Grew up in the courts of England, France, Russia, and the Netherlands due to his father and working with other diplomats.

• Initially was an attorney in Boston and began writing political works.

• 1794: Appointed as minister to the Netherlands by President Washington, eventually gained a diplomatic post in Prussia when John Adams became president.

• 1803: Massachusetts senator

• 1808: Ambassador to Russia during Madison’s presidency

• 1814: Sent to lead a delegation to sue for peace during the War of 1812.

  • Treaty of Ghent with Henry Clay, then he became minister to the United Kingdom in 1815.

• 1817: Secretary of State under James Monroe

• 1819: Adams-Onis Treaty, U.S. now had access to both Spanish territory (and permitted invasion by Andrew Jackson) and the Pacific Ocean

• 1823: Primary author of the Monroe Doctrine

• 1824: Election of 1824, lost to Andrew Jackson. Both him and AJ did not have enough electoral votes for presidency, however. House of Representatives decided to elect him as president (13 states to Jackson’s 7).

  • Appointed Henry Clay as his secretary of state; Clay was a key figure in securing his election. Many claimed there was a “Corrupt Bargain”

• 1828: Lost re-election to Andrew Jackson

• 1830: Elected to House of Rep., supported by National Republicans and the Anti-Masonic Party.

  • Anti-slavery views

John Caldwell Calhoun

(1782 - 1850)

• “States first” political ideology

• 1808: Member of state legislature in South Carolina

• 1811: Member of U.S. House

  • War Hawk, wanted to declare war against Britain

  • Supported a buildup of armed forces and improved infrastructure for military and economic purposes

• 1817: Secretary of War under Monroe’s presidency

  • Assisted in acquiring Florida from the Spanish

• 1824: Failed presidential campaign, was VP under John Quincy Adams

• 1828: VP under Andrew Jackson

• 1828: Authored South Carolina Exposition and Protest, against the Tariff of 1828 (declared it unconstitutional) and thus able to be nullified by the state —> Doctrine of Nullification

• 1832: Resigned from Jackson’s administration but was appointed to the Senate by the SC legislature

• Fought with Jackson during the Bank War

• 1844: Secretary of State under John Tyler

  • Encouraged Tyler’s efforts to annex Texas

  • Revealed he wanted to protect and expand slavery in the U.S. using the annexation of Texas

• 1850: Against Henry Clay’s Compromise of 1850, wanted to continue slavery in the Union

Henry Clay Sr.

(1777 - 1852)

• “Great Compromiser”, “greatest statesman”

• Owned slaves but was a founder of the American Colonization Society and pushed for abolition in Kentucky.

• Represented Aaron Burr in part of his treason trial, was one of the first attorneys to ever use a successful temporary insanity defense, and was first to file an amicus curiae brief to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1821.

• 1803: Seat in Kentucky legislative

  • promoted Jefferson’s Republican Party

• 1809: Duel with fellow legislator Humphrey Marshall

• 1810: House of Representatives (Kentucky)

• Leader of the War Hawks

• 1820: Led the passage of the Missouri Compromise

  • opposed expansion of slavery, but believed that eradicating it completely would cause a sectional crisis

• 1824: Election of 1824, originally was running for presidency but fell to fourth place. Between Adams and Jackson, he supported Adams and he viewed Jackson as a “military chieftain” and did not trust Jackson after AJ’s invasion of Spanish Florida in 1818.

  • Scapegoat of “Corrupt Bargain,” by Jacksonian supporters

• 1831: Senate, tried to push his American System of a strong U.S. Bank, protective tariffs, and investment in infrastructure to connect the Union.

• Worked with Nicolas Biddle, leader of the bank, to push for an early recharter of the bank. AJ vetoed and killed bank.

• Expelled John Tyler from the Whig Party and Tyler had vetoed the rechartering of the bank twice.

Alexander Hamilton

(1755/57 - 1804)

• Lieutenant colonel and aide-de-camp of General Washington during the American Revolution

• Represented New York at the Philadelphia Convention to amend the Articles of Confederation

• Wrote the Federalist Papers with James Madison and John Jay to support the passage of the Constitution; under pseudonym Publius

• Secretary of Treasury under George Washington, disliked John Adams as a VP

  • Wanted a British-style economy, where the government supported the development of a merchant class, which in turn funded the government

• 1790: Pushed legislation for a Bank of the U.S. and the assumption of state debts by the federal government

• 1792: U.S. Mint created

• Gained support for the banking system by allowing for the federal capital to be built in the South; deal with Jefferson and Madison

• 1795: Left Washington’s cabinet after ratifying pro-British Jay Treaty

• 1797: Reynolds Pamphlets released, no longer a presidential candidate (also, could not run as was not born in the United States)

• After the XYZ Affair, AH created the Additional Army

• 1800: Published The Public Conduct and Character of the President of the United States, which was a “private” letter of Adams meant to deem him unfit to continue as presidency. His issue with Adams is due to AH being a High Federalist and Adams not (normal Federalist).

  • Supported Charles Cotesworth Pinckney as the Federalist presidential candidate, thus splitting Federalist votes and allowing Jefferson’s ballot to win; AH endorsed Jefferson in the House to allow him to secure the presidency over Burr

• 1804: Hamilton-Burr duel, Hamilton died

Andrew Jackson

(1767 - 1845)

• “Old Hickory”, “Hero of New Orleans”, “King Andrew”

• Married a divorcee, which caused a lot of hate later on in life.

• Had a plantation called the Hermitage near Nashville, TN

• 1797: Brief service in the U.S. Senate, then decided it was enough and returned to Tennessee as a judge.

• Battle of Horseshoe Bend: defeated the Red Sticks with his own Native allies during the War of 1812. This secured him an appointment as a general in the U.S. Army.

• Battle of Pensacola: Attacked Florida

• 1815: Repulsed the British attempt to invade New Orleans

• 1817: First Seminole War of 1817, attacked Seminole groups that had raided U.S. settlements north of Spanish Florida. He invaded the Spanish colony and won control in 1818. Very controversial.

• 1819: Adams-Onis Treaty = U.S. gained control of Florida

• 1821: Territorial governor of Florida

• 1824: After election of 1824, the Democratic-Republican party split due to the alleged Corrupt Bargain into the Republican Party and the Democratic Party (DR = Jackson)

• 1828: Election of 1828, had popular support and led into the spoils system, where Jackson put into office many of his own friends and supporters no matter their political experience

• Opened more lands for settlement and forcibly removed thousands of indigenous peoples from their lands

  • Supported Tariff of 1828, in opposition to his own VP, John C. Calhoun

• 1830: Indian Removal Act

• 1832: Defied decision of Worcester v. Georgia (tribes like the Cherokee were sovereign and immune from state impositions), passed Force Bill to make South Carolina submit to federal rule

• 1833: Killed the State Bank by pulling out federal deposits; new secretary of treasury, Roger Taney, put the funds in friendly pet banks in various states

• 1837: Specie Circular (required gold or silver for buying federal land), an attempt to undercut land speculation.

Thomas Jefferson

(1743 - 1826)

• “American sphynx”, “The Sage of Monticello”

• 1776: Part of the committee to write the Declaration of Independence

• Wrote Virginia state constitution, included statute for religious freedom

• 1779: Governor of Virginia, but had to flee when the British invaded (source of continued political embarrassment)

• U.S. ambassador to France, had a great Francophile view

• First secretary of state under the Washington administration, argued frequently with Alexander Hamilton (secretary of treasury) because of AH’s pro-British policies (their financial system, aristocracy, and monarchy), wanted French influences instead

• Eventual rise of the Republican Party.

• As John Adams’ VP: silently opposed his Federalist backed policies, such as the Alien and Sedition Acts, Additional Army, tax system, and naval war against France

• Virginia Resolution - supported the constitutionality of a state’s ability to nullify believed to be unconstitutional laws

• 1800→ as president, reduced federal debt and heavily curtailed spending and government action. Restraint of federal power at the same time of acquiring a LOT of territory through the Louisiana Purchase (1803)

• Second turn (1804)→ difficulty in navigating foreign policy at this time due to the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. Disliked trade, in 1807 Embargo Act. Did not end up with economic stability or neutrality as he had hoped, largely ineffective.

• Founded University of Virginia

• Greatest achievements (per TJ): Declaration of Independence and Statute of Religious Freedom

James Madison

(1751 - 1836)

• “Father of the Constitution” and author of the Bill of Rights

• An original Federalist and founding Republican, fought against slavery while owning slaves

• Helped draft the Virginian Constitution with Jefferson

• 1780: Representative at the Continental Congress

• 1786: Annapolis Convention and Philadelphia Convention to draft a new constitution after failure of the Articles of Confederation

  • Defended constitution with the Federalist Papers with AH and JJ

• 1791: Bill of Rights

• Supported implied powers of the government, disliked pro-British leanings of AH, did not approve Jay’s Treaty in 1794 (thought it put the U.S. in a disadvantageous position)

• His wife, Dolley, was a great hostess and helped him out.

• 1798: Wrote the Virginia Resolution attacking the federal overreach via the Alien and Sedition Acts

• 1800: Election of 1800, assisted in organizing efforts to attack Federalists in newspapers and other publications, as well as keeping records of trends of voting predictions

  • Led to his appointment as secretary of state under TJ, aided in the Louisiana Purchase

• When the Embargo Act of 1807 failed, TJ and JM replaced it with the Non-Intercourse Act in 1809.

• 1812: War of 1812. yikes, yeah.

• Won re-election somehow my guy

• Treaty of Ghent - policy draw but demonstrated that the U.S. could hold its own against the England

• 1816: Rechartered the U.S. Bank and supported federal spending on infrastructure, signed a protectionist tariff and oversaw a brief post-war economic recovery

• 1992: The 27th amendment was passed, which was originally proposed by James Madison.