HLTH 380 Exam - Weeks 7-12 Content

History of reproduction

Historical views saw women primarily as reproductive vessels; strong social pressure to have children.

Women’s reproductive role

Women’s bodies viewed as vehicles for reproduction; patriarchal control.

Infertility treatments history

Developed to help couples fulfill social expectations of parenthood.

Impact of capitalism on reproduction

Assisted reproduction influenced by market forces, consumerism, and privatized clinics.

Age at first birth (Canada)

Increasing age at first birth; 31.6 average in 2022.

Total fertility rate (Canada)

Declining fertility rate; reached ~1.25 children per woman in 2024.

Procreative liberty

Autonomy-based argument claiming reproductive decisions should be free from interference.

Harm principle in reproduction

As long as no harm occurs, reproductive autonomy should be protected.

Critique of procreative liberty

Harm to future children unclear; relies too heavily on autonomy; ignores beneficence.

Marketplace ideology

Treats reproduction as a purchasable service, reinforcing inequalities.

Responsible parenthood concern

Questions whether all individuals are fit or prepared for parenting.

Physical harm risks

Pregnancy risks, fertility treatment risks, emotional strain.

Emotional harm risks

Psychological distress from infertility or failed treatments.

Stigma of infertility

Pressure on individuals/couples to have children.

Severing genetic/social ties

Distinguishes social vs. gestational vs. genetic parenthood.

Asymmetry in reproduction

One parent may be genetic while the other is social only.

Secrecy in assisted reproduction

Families may hide donor identity; ethical concerns for children.

Anonymity in gamete donation

Donor identities withheld; violates child’s right to know origins.

Commodification

Turning reproductive materials into market commodities.

Objectification in reproduction

Children viewed as products; donor characteristics treated as purchasable traits.

Feminist view of ART

Emphasizes unequal burden on women and potential for exploitation.

Andrews' view

Supports women’s right to sell reproductive services.

Anderson's view

Opposes commodification; threatens dignity and human value.

Raymond’s view

Even altruistic surrogacy can exploit women.

Human genome

Complete set of genetic information in humans.

CRISPR

Gene-editing technology that modifies DNA with precision.

Social constructionism

Knowledge shaped by social forces; science not purely objective.

Paradigm shifts (Kuhn)

Scientific revolutions occur through consensus, not linear progress.

Authoritarian eugenics

State controls reproductive decisions; determines desirable traits.

Liberal eugenics

Parents choose enhancements for children; autonomy-focused.

Laisser-faire eugenics

State does not regulate genetic choices; individual freedom.

Utopian eugenics

Everyone freely chooses genetic decisions with full awareness.

Eugenics social issues

Genetic choices reflect social inequalities, discrimination, class bias.

Somatic gene therapy

Modifies body cells to treat disease; changes not inherited.

Ethical issues (somatic)

Risks, uncertainty, experimentation.

Germ-line gene therapy

Changes sperm/egg cells; inherited by future generations.

Ethical issues (germ-line)

Impacts future persons; designer babies; irreversible.

Prenatal testing concerns

Testing may pressure parents toward selective abortion.

Amniocentesis social implications

Raises questions about choosing traits and disability stigma.

Designer babies

Selecting genetic traits; ethical concerns about autonomy and equality.

Feminist critique (genetics)

Questions whether choices are truly autonomous or socially pressured.

Reproductive liberty concerns

Choice may be influenced by societal expectations of “normality.”

Human nature challenge

Genetic technologies challenge concepts of “natural” human life.

Michael Sandel’s view

Not everything should be controlled; humility toward nature.

Moral status of embryo

Debate whether embryo has rights or personhood.

Pro-life rhetoric

Frames fetus as a baby with rights; abortion as killing.

Pro-choice rhetoric

Frames abortion as bodily autonomy and a medical procedure.

Claims-making activity

Groups construct narratives of villains/victims to frame abortion.

Abortion rates (Canada)

Higher among ages 20–34; stable patterns with slight fluctuations.

International comparisons

Canada lower than UK, Sweden; similar to France.

No fetal rights in Bible

Traditional scripture lacks concept of fetal personhood.

Aristotle/Aquinas fetal development

Male fetus ensouled at 40 days; female at 90 days.

Catholic view

Strict; abortion is direct killing; only indirect abortion allowed.

Protestant view

Mixed; may allow abortion for maternal risk.

Judaism

Mother’s life takes priority; fetus not full person.

Islam

Abortion permitted to save mother; generally before 40 days.

Illegalization & medicalization

Criminalization tied to control of women’s reproductive roles.

Legalization of abortion

Driven by women’s health, rights, and unsafe illegal abortions.

Roe v. Wade significance

Established abortion rights in US until overturned.

Dr. Morgentaler

Central figure in Canadian decriminalization of abortion (1988).

Fetal rights debate

Conservative to liberal spectrum on fetal personhood.

Personhood question

Determining when fetus becomes a moral being.

Boonin slippery slope argument

Rejects idea that personhood requires a strict cut-off.

Callahan partial moral status

Fetus has some moral value but not full rights.

Naomi Wolf

Abortion is morally serious but not equivalent to murder.

Maternal–fetal conflict

When maternal autonomy clashes with perceived fetal interests.

Autonomy in pregnancy

Women's rights to control their bodies.

Sidney Callahan view

Right to control one’s body does not extend to controlling another body (fetus).

Changing meaning of death

Shift from sudden death to chronic illness; medicalization.

Quest for immortality

Cultural desire to avoid death; driven by medical developments.

Loss of the “moment of death”

Technology blurs boundary between life and death.

Plato on death

Belief in immortal soul and reincarnation.

Christian view

Transformation and eternal life.

Darwin

Death as natural biological process.

Whole-brain death

Irreversible cessation of all brain functions, including brainstem.

Heart–lung death

Cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions.

1968 Harvard criteria

Standardized whole-brain death definition.

Hans Jonas on brain death

Once a person is a cadaver, using organs is permissible.

McCulloch on brain death

Unethical not to use organs; reification of personhood.

Active euthanasia

Intentional act to cause death.

Passive euthanasia

Withholding treatment to allow death.

Voluntary euthanasia

Patient consents.

Non-voluntary euthanasia

Surrogate decides.

Involuntary euthanasia

Against patient’s wishes.

Assisted suicide

Patient ends their own life with provided means.

Rachels view

Active and passive euthanasia morally equivalent.

Callahan view

Active killing morally different from letting die.

Futile treatment

Interventions unlikely to benefit patient.

Who defines futility

Conflict between patient autonomy and physician judgment.

MAID eligibility

18+, grievous/irremediable condition, informed consent.

MAID Track 1

Natural death foreseeable.

MAID Track 2

Natural death not foreseeable; extra safeguards.

MAID concerns (mental illness)

Debate over including mental illness; delayed until 2027.

Organ transplantation history

First kidney transplant 1954; early attempts experimental.

Current transplant stats

Over 3,200 transplants in Canada in 2024; mostly deceased donors.

Cost of transplantation

Highly expensive, resource-intensive.

Supply shortage

Demand far exceeds available organs.

Consent issues

Debates on informed, presumed, or mandated choice.

Allocation

Who gets organs and why.

Cadaveric donation

Organs harvested from deceased donors.