Psch u3 f

Stability vs Change

Question of whether personality traits remain consistent or change over time

Longitudinal Study

Research method that follows the same group of people over a long period to observe developmental changes

Longitudinal Study Pros

Shows patterns of development and potential cause-and-effect relationships

Longitudinal Study Cons

Expensive, time-consuming, and vulnerable to participant attrition

Cross-Sectional Study

Compares different age groups at a single point in time

Cross-Sectional Pros

Fast, cost-effective, provides a snapshot of a population

Cross-Sectional Cons

Cannot determine causation and may be influenced by cohort effects

Cohort Effect

Differences between age groups caused by shared historical or cultural experiences rather than age

Nature vs Nurture

Debate over the influence of genetics (nature) versus environment (nurture) on development

Heredity

Transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring

Environment

All non-genetic influences on development including culture, education, and experiences

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to separate genetic and environmental influences

Continuous Development

Development that occurs gradually and continuously over time

Discontinuous Development

Development that occurs in distinct stages with qualitative changes

Germinal Stage

First ~2 weeks of prenatal development involving fertilization, cell division, and implantation

Embryonic Stage

Weeks 3–8 where major organs and body structures begin to form

Fetal Stage

Week 9 to birth marked by rapid growth and maturation of organs

Teratogen

Any substance that can harm fetal development and cause birth defects

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Lifelong physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems caused by prenatal alcohol exposure

Maternal Smoking Effects

Increased risk of low birth weight, premature birth, brain/lung damage, and SIDS

Down Syndrome

Genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

Turner Syndrome

Genetic condition in females caused by a missing or incomplete X chromosome

Hormones

Chemical messengers in the endocrine system that regulate growth and development

Palmar Grasp Reflex

Newborn reflex where fingers curl around an object placed in the palm

Plantar Grasp Reflex

Infant reflex where toes curl downward when sole of foot is touched

Babinski Reflex

Infant reflex where toes fan outward when the foot is stroked

Rooting Reflex

Infant turns head toward touch to locate food

Gross Motor Skills

Large muscle movements such as walking and jumping

Fine Motor Skills

Small, precise movements using hands and fingers

Visual Cliff Experiment

Study showing depth perception develops around 5 months of age

Depth Perception

Ability to judge distance and perceive the world in three dimensions

Critical Period

Fixed window when specific experiences must occur for normal development

Sensitive Period

Optimal time for development when learning is easier but still possible later

Imprinting

Early attachment process where animals bond to the first moving object they see

Puberty

Period of sexual maturation involving physical and hormonal changes

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs directly involved in reproduction

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits that emerge at puberty not directly related to reproduction

Physical Peak

Most physical abilities peak in the mid-20s

Menopause

Natural end of menstruation and reproductive ability, around age 52

Emerging Adulthood

Ages 18–29 marked by identity exploration and instability

Gender

Socially constructed roles and identities associated with being male or female

Gender Schema Theory

Theory that children develop mental frameworks about gender based on cultural norms

Gender Roles

Social expectations for behavior based on gender

Gender Stereotypes

Oversimplified beliefs about gender traits

Socialization

Process by which individuals learn societal norms and values

Homosexual

Attraction to individuals of the same sex

Heterosexual

Attraction to individuals of the opposite sex

Bisexual

Attraction to more than one gender

Asexual

Little or no sexual attraction to others

Cognitive Development

Growth of thinking, reasoning, memory, and problem-solving abilities

Schema

Mental framework for organizing and interpreting information

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth–2 years; learning through senses and actions

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight

Preoperational Stage

Ages 2–7; symbolic thinking but limited logic

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing perspectives other than one’s own

Conservation

Understanding quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance

Concrete Operational Stage

Ages 7–11; logical thinking about concrete events

Formal Operational Stage

Age 12+; abstract and hypothetical reasoning

Zone of Proximal Development

Range between what a learner can do alone and with help

Scaffolding

Temporary support to help a learner master a task

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to solve new problems using logic and reasoning

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and skills gained through experience

Dementia

Progressive decline in cognitive ability interfering with daily life

Alzheimer’s Disease

Neurodegenerative disorder causing memory loss and cognitive decline

Language

System of communication using sounds, symbols, and rules

Phoneme

Smallest unit of sound in a language

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaning in language

Semantics

Rules for deriving meaning from language

Syntax

Rules governing word order in sentences

Cooing Stage

Early vowel-like sounds made by infants

Babbling Stage

Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds

One-Word Stage

Single words used to express whole ideas

Telegraphic Speech

Two- or three-word phrases using essential words only

Universal Grammar

Chomsky’s theory of innate language structure

Overgeneralization

Applying language rules too broadly (e.g., “goed”)

Microsystem

Immediate environment directly affecting development

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems

Exosystem

External settings that indirectly influence development

Macrosystem

Cultural values, laws, and societal norms

Chronosystem

Time-based influences on development

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth and high expectations

Authoritarian Parenting

High control and low warmth

Permissive Parenting

High warmth and low control

Neglectful Parenting

Low warmth and low control

Secure Attachment

Healthy bond with caregiver providing a secure base

Avoidant Attachment

Child avoids caregiver and shows little distress

Anxious Attachment

Child is clingy and distressed by separation

Disorganized Attachment

Inconsistent and fearful attachment behavior

Temperament

Inborn differences in emotional reactivity and self-regulation

Separation Anxiety

Excessive distress when separated from attachment figures

Harlow’s Monkey Experiment

Study showing attachment is based on comfort, not food

Parallel Play

Children play side-by-side without interaction

Pretend Play

Imaginative role-based play

Adolescent Egocentrism

Heightened self-focus during adolescence

Personal Fable

Belief in personal uniqueness and invulnerability

Trust vs Mistrust

Infancy stage focused on developing basic trust

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Toddler stage focused on independence

Initiative vs Guilt

Preschool stage focused on purpose