Bio Final S2

Add chapters 12 & ecology

Gregor Mendel

The person who laid the groundwork for genetics

Law of Segregation

States that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and donate one copy of each gene in their gametes

Alleles

The different versions of one trait an organisms receives from parents

Homozygous Dominant

Two dominant alleles

Heterozygous

One dominant & one recessive alleles

Homozygous Recessive

Two recessive alleles

Genome

An organism’s genetic material

Genotype

The genetic makeup of a specific set of genes

Phenotype

The physical characteristics of an organism

Law of Independent Assortment

The law that states that allele pairs separate independently of each other during meiosis & genes are inherited separately

Linked Genes

Genes located on the same chromosome that are frequently inherited together

Crossing Over

One way genetic variation occurs, during Prophase I genetic information is exchanged between homologous chromosomes

Independent Assortment

One way genetic variation occurs, during metaphase I homologous pairs arrange themselves randomly

Random fertilization

One way genetic variation occurs, male & female gametes that fertilize are selected randomly

Sex-Linked Gene

A gene found on sex chromosomes, usually X chromosomes

Males

Sex-Linked disorders are most commonly found in \______

X-Chromosome Inactivation

When one of two X-chromosomes are randomly turned off after the organism begins developing

Holandric Genes

Genes found on Y-chromosomes

Cystic Fibrosis

An example of an Autosomal Recessive Disorder

Huntington’s Disease

An example of an Autosomal Dominant Disorder

Color Blindness

An example of a Sex-Linked Chromosome

Hairy Ears

An example of a Holandric Gene

Incomplete Dominance

Traits in which neither allele is completely dominant, so a blending is shown in the phenotype

Codominance

A trait in which both alleles are expressed completely

Multiple Allele Traits

Traits that are determined by multiple different alleles

Polygenic Traits

Traits determined by 2 or more genes

Skin and eye color

Examples of polygenic traits

Epistasis

A trait in which one gene can override the others

Albinism

Example of Epistasis

Pedigree

A chart for tracing genes in families

Karyotype

A picture of all chromosomes in a cell

Identify genetic disorders caused by too many or few chromosomes

What do Karyotypes do?

Down Syndrome

The genetic disorder in which someone has an extra chromosome 21.

Turner’s Syndrome

The genetic disorder in which someone only has one X chromosome

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

The genetic disorder in which someone has and extra X chromosome. (XXY)

Males will mostly be affected, females will mostly be carriers

Using a pedigree, how do you tell it is a sex-linked trait?

Often, traits will skip a generation

Using a pedigree, how do you tell it is an autosomal recessive trait?

Blood type

Example of multiple allele trait

Phosphate Group, Sugar, & Nitrogen Base

The parts of nucleotides

Hydrogen Bond

The bond between nitrogen bases in DNA

Covalent Bonds

The bond between sugar & phosphate in DNA

T & C

The nitrogen bases that are pyrimidines

A & G

The nitrogen bases that are purines

Pyrimidines

The category of nitrogen bases with a single ring

Purines

The category of nitrogen bases with double rings

A & T

The pair of nitrogen bases forming a double hydrogen bond

C & G

The pair of nitrogen bases forming triple hydrogen bonds

Deoxyribose

The sugar DNA has

Ribose

The sugar RNA has

Antiparallel

The sides of DNA are \______, meaning they face opposite directions

5’ to 3’

DNA Replication goes from \__ to __

DNA Helicase

The enzyme that first unzips the sides of DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds

DNA Polymerase

The enzyme that matches nucleotides to create a duplicate of the DNA

Semiconservative

DNA replication is \_______, meaning part of it is conserved

Uracil

The chemical RNA has instead of thymine

Single

RNA is \_______ stranded

Messenger RNA

The type of RNA that acts as a messenger between DNA in the nucleus and the ribosomes

Ribosomal RNA

The type of RNA that forms part of the ribosome

Transfer RNA

The type of RNA that translates the code from mRNA to proteins

Transcription

The process converting DNA to RNA

Translation

The process interpreting mRNA to amino acid chains forming proteins

Nucleus

The place transcription begins

RNA Polymerase

The enzyme that helps unzip the DNA as the first step converting it to RNA

Codon

The group of 3 nucleotides mRNA is read in

Anti-codon

The group of 3 nucleotides on tRNA

attatched

tRNA is \_____ to an amino acid

reads

The tRNA \_____ the codon (mRNA) to create the amino acid

Mutation

A change in an organism’s DNA

Print Mutation

A single gene mutation in which one nucleotide is substituted for another

Frameshift

A single gene mutation in which a base is inserted or deleted from the DNA sequence, shifting the entire sequence

Noncoding Region

A mutation may occur in a \_______, a part of a chromosome where genetic material isn’t read, so it won’t affect the organism

Gene Duplication

A chromosomal mutation in which an organism has 2 or more copies of the same gene

Gene Translocation

A chromosomal mutation in which DNA is exchanged between 2 different chromosomes

Replication Errors or Mutagens like UV and Chemicals

What causes genetic mutations?

Nucleotide

A monomer that composes DNA & RNA

Restriction Enzymes

Enzymes that cut DNA

Bacteria

What restriction enzymes come from

Restriction Site

The nucleotide sequence cut out by enzymes

Blunt Ends

A restriction site cut straight

Sticky Ends

A restriction site with staggered cuts

Gel Electrophoresis

A technique that separates DNA fragments by size and charge

Farther

Smaller fragments travel \______ on gel electrophoresis

Shorter

Larger fragments travel \______ on gel electrophoresis

Electrical Current

This pulls DNA fragments through the gel in gel electrophoresis

Negative

DNA molecules have a \_______ charge

Polymer Chain Reaction

The process that makes copies of a DNA sequence

Recombinant DNA

DNA from more than one organism used in genetic engineering

Transgenic Organisms

The name of organisms that underwent genetic engineering

Restriction enzymes cut the foreign DNA gene, insert it into a plasmid, and add it to an organism

The process of making recombinant DNA

Insulin

Transgenic bacteria is used to produce \_______

Vaccines

Transgenic viruses are used to produce \_______

Resistant to frost, disease, and insects, & increased crop yields

Advantages of transgenic plants

Putting recombinant DNA into an egg

Transgenic animals are produced by \______

Clone

A genetically identical organism

Nuclear Transfer

The name of the process of cloning

A nucleus is taken from a somatic cell and transferred to an egg, then implanted into the womb of an animal

The process of nuclear transfer

Variations

Differences in physical traits, like those Darwin observed between animals in different locations

Artificial Selection

The process by which humans change a species by breeding it for certain traits

Natural Selection

The process by which the environment influences evolution

Fitness

An organism’s ability to survive