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Add chapters 12 & ecology
Gregor Mendel
The person who laid the groundwork for genetics
Law of Segregation
States that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and donate one copy of each gene in their gametes
Alleles
The different versions of one trait an organisms receives from parents
Homozygous Dominant
Two dominant alleles
Heterozygous
One dominant & one recessive alleles
Homozygous Recessive
Two recessive alleles
Genome
An organism’s genetic material
Genotype
The genetic makeup of a specific set of genes
Phenotype
The physical characteristics of an organism
Law of Independent Assortment
The law that states that allele pairs separate independently of each other during meiosis & genes are inherited separately
Linked Genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that are frequently inherited together
Crossing Over
One way genetic variation occurs, during Prophase I genetic information is exchanged between homologous chromosomes
Independent Assortment
One way genetic variation occurs, during metaphase I homologous pairs arrange themselves randomly
Random fertilization
One way genetic variation occurs, male & female gametes that fertilize are selected randomly
Sex-Linked Gene
A gene found on sex chromosomes, usually X chromosomes
Males
Sex-Linked disorders are most commonly found in ______
X-Chromosome Inactivation
When one of two X-chromosomes are randomly turned off after the organism begins developing
Holandric Genes
Genes found on Y-chromosomes
Cystic Fibrosis
An example of an Autosomal Recessive Disorder
Huntington’s Disease
An example of an Autosomal Dominant Disorder
Color Blindness
An example of a Sex-Linked Chromosome
Hairy Ears
An example of a Holandric Gene
Incomplete Dominance
Traits in which neither allele is completely dominant, so a blending is shown in the phenotype
Codominance
A trait in which both alleles are expressed completely
Multiple Allele Traits
Traits that are determined by multiple different alleles
Polygenic Traits
Traits determined by 2 or more genes
Skin and eye color
Examples of polygenic traits
Epistasis
A trait in which one gene can override the others
Albinism
Example of Epistasis
Pedigree
A chart for tracing genes in families
Karyotype
A picture of all chromosomes in a cell
Identify genetic disorders caused by too many or few chromosomes
What do Karyotypes do?
Down Syndrome
The genetic disorder in which someone has an extra chromosome 21.
Turner’s Syndrome
The genetic disorder in which someone only has one X chromosome
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
The genetic disorder in which someone has and extra X chromosome. (XXY)
Males will mostly be affected, females will mostly be carriers
Using a pedigree, how do you tell it is a sex-linked trait?
Often, traits will skip a generation
Using a pedigree, how do you tell it is an autosomal recessive trait?
Blood type
Example of multiple allele trait
Phosphate Group, Sugar, & Nitrogen Base
The parts of nucleotides
Hydrogen Bond
The bond between nitrogen bases in DNA
Covalent Bonds
The bond between sugar & phosphate in DNA
T & C
The nitrogen bases that are pyrimidines
A & G
The nitrogen bases that are purines
Pyrimidines
The category of nitrogen bases with a single ring
Purines
The category of nitrogen bases with double rings
A & T
The pair of nitrogen bases forming a double hydrogen bond
C & G
The pair of nitrogen bases forming triple hydrogen bonds
Deoxyribose
The sugar DNA has
Ribose
The sugar RNA has
Antiparallel
The sides of DNA are ______, meaning they face opposite directions
5’ to 3’
DNA Replication goes from __ to __
DNA Helicase
The enzyme that first unzips the sides of DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds
DNA Polymerase
The enzyme that matches nucleotides to create a duplicate of the DNA
Semiconservative
DNA replication is _______, meaning part of it is conserved
Uracil
The chemical RNA has instead of thymine
Single
RNA is _______ stranded
Messenger RNA
The type of RNA that acts as a messenger between DNA in the nucleus and the ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA
The type of RNA that forms part of the ribosome
Transfer RNA
The type of RNA that translates the code from mRNA to proteins
Transcription
The process converting DNA to RNA
Translation
The process interpreting mRNA to amino acid chains forming proteins
Nucleus
The place transcription begins
RNA Polymerase
The enzyme that helps unzip the DNA as the first step converting it to RNA
Codon
The group of 3 nucleotides mRNA is read in
Anti-codon
The group of 3 nucleotides on tRNA
attatched
tRNA is _____ to an amino acid
reads
The tRNA _____ the codon (mRNA) to create the amino acid
Mutation
A change in an organism’s DNA
Print Mutation
A single gene mutation in which one nucleotide is substituted for another
Frameshift
A single gene mutation in which a base is inserted or deleted from the DNA sequence, shifting the entire sequence
Noncoding Region
A mutation may occur in a _______, a part of a chromosome where genetic material isn’t read, so it won’t affect the organism
Gene Duplication
A chromosomal mutation in which an organism has 2 or more copies of the same gene
Gene Translocation
A chromosomal mutation in which DNA is exchanged between 2 different chromosomes
Replication Errors or Mutagens like UV and Chemicals
What causes genetic mutations?
Nucleotide
A monomer that composes DNA & RNA
Restriction Enzymes
Enzymes that cut DNA
Bacteria
What restriction enzymes come from
Restriction Site
The nucleotide sequence cut out by enzymes
Blunt Ends
A restriction site cut straight
Sticky Ends
A restriction site with staggered cuts
Gel Electrophoresis
A technique that separates DNA fragments by size and charge
Farther
Smaller fragments travel ______ on gel electrophoresis
Shorter
Larger fragments travel ______ on gel electrophoresis
Electrical Current
This pulls DNA fragments through the gel in gel electrophoresis
Negative
DNA molecules have a _______ charge
Polymer Chain Reaction
The process that makes copies of a DNA sequence
Recombinant DNA
DNA from more than one organism used in genetic engineering
Transgenic Organisms
The name of organisms that underwent genetic engineering
Restriction enzymes cut the foreign DNA gene, insert it into a plasmid, and add it to an organism
The process of making recombinant DNA
Insulin
Transgenic bacteria is used to produce _______
Vaccines
Transgenic viruses are used to produce _______
Resistant to frost, disease, and insects, & increased crop yields
Advantages of transgenic plants
Putting recombinant DNA into an egg
Transgenic animals are produced by ______
Clone
A genetically identical organism
Nuclear Transfer
The name of the process of cloning
A nucleus is taken from a somatic cell and transferred to an egg, then implanted into the womb of an animal
The process of nuclear transfer
Variations
Differences in physical traits, like those Darwin observed between animals in different locations
Artificial Selection
The process by which humans change a species by breeding it for certain traits
Natural Selection
The process by which the environment influences evolution
Fitness
An organism’s ability to survive
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