PERIOD 2 EHAP

made by evan pa n, parts are taken from other sets, may have missed some termsbut

reaction of the Catholic Church to new science

reaction of the Catholic Church to new science

• Most scientists saw their work as a way to honor god’s glory, not challenge it

• Initially the Catholic Church was more accepting of science

• After theory of heliocentrism was introduced Chuch began began hostility

national academies of science

• Created in London, Paris, and Berlin under state sponsorship 

• Governments were able to support and direct research 

• Tied scientific community to government

impact of Scientific Revolution on women

• Did not question inequalities and somewhat worsened it 

• Most universities did not accept/permit women 

• Women participated in informal science communities such as salons

the Enlightenment

• Movement in 17th and 18th century based on the emphasis of reason and individualism

• USed scientific principles by applying them to improve/better society

rationalism

• belief that reason should be the primary source of knowledge

• Logical deduction can be used to discover truths

• Rene Descartes and Baruch Spinoza

Baruch Spinoza

• Dutch philosopher who applied rationalism to politics and ethics (social structure) 

• Monism: Idea that mind and body are one

• Rejected dualism

• Advocated for idea that human actions are influenced by outside factors

Thomas Hobbes

• Leviathan 1651

• Believed humans need a strong central government 

• Supported absolute monarchy as a way to prevent chaos and maintain social order

John Locke

• Essay Concerning Human Understanding

• Two Treatises of Government

• Proposed idea that knowledge comes from experience (Tabula Rasa Theory)

• Believed government should protect natural rights

philosophes

• Thinkers from enlightenment who promotes the use of reason

• Focused on issues such as education, ethics and government

Montesquieu

• The Spirit of Laws

• Advocated for separation of powers

Volaire

• Advocates for civil liberties 

• Religious tolerance

• Supported deism

• Against dogmatism (stubborn/ narrow-minded)

deism

• Believe that god created the universe but doesn’t intervene with how humans conduct their lives

• Reason and observation over religion

Denis Diderot

• Encyclopedia (editor)

• Compiled and spread enlightenment ideas

• Prompted thought and knowledge

Rousseau

• The Social Contract

• Emphasized important of free will

• Advocates for democracy

• Believes there is goodness in humanity but that it is corrupted by society

religion in the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment thinkers often question religion

• Focused on the rationality and ethical idea of beliefs

• Advocating for the separation of church and state and religious tolerance

David Hume

• Empiricism and skepticism regarding human understanding and religion

• Emphasized that there were limits on human reason

Adam Smith

• The Wealth of Nations

• Laid foundations of economics and capitalism within modern world

• Advocated for free markets meaning government doesn’t dictate trade

Beccaria

• On Crimes and Punishments

• Advocated for reforms on criminal justice

• Opposed to torture + death penalty

• Believed in social contract theory in the justice system

religious toleration

• Advocated for the acceptance/toleration of different religions and their beliefs/practices

• Opposed to state enforced religions

• Protected the individual rights of people regarding their beliefs

Isaac Newton

• Created explanatory system that merged ideas of Copernicus’s astronomy (corrected by Kelper’s laws) and Galileo’s ideas on physics

• 1687 published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

• Law of universal gravitation: everything attracts everything in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship (Gravity🤯)

Encyclopedias

• Books that had descriptions and drawings of new scientific discoveries

• Helped spread progressive way of thinking

Astrology

• Began as belief that heavenly bodies (celestial objects) controlled the fate of earth

• Used as a tool to diagnose in medicine

Alchemy

•  Tradition of natural philosophers

• The understanding and control of connections between elements of the natural world

Francis Bacon

• Advocated for experimental method 

• Rejected idea of using reason to build theories 

• Wanted scientific inquiry to be based on observations

• Prestige ad lord chancellor under James I helped spread the adoption of “experimental philosophy”

Rene Descartes

• Realized that Geometry and Algebra were connected (analytic geometry) 

• Added onto Galileo’s ideas by proposing that matter was made of corpuscles (tiny particles)

• Argued that empty space couldn’t exist because space and matter were the same

• Created First Principles which were basic truths of god and mathematical concepts

• Divided everything into 2 categories

  • Matter (physical things)

  • Mind (thoughts)

Scientific Method

• System created to help scientists answer questions and solve problems

• Changed how people viewed the world and professions

Empiricism

• Idea that emphasized that knowledge should be gained through personal experience and observation rather than only reason

• Important because it shifted understanding of knowledge from authority and tradition to observation and reason

Deductive Reasoning

• Proccess of how conclusions are drawn from ideas we already know

• Allowed them to build on ideas and foster deeper understanding

Galen’s ideas

• The body contains 4 humors

  • blood 

  • phlegm

  • black bile

  • yellow bile

• Illness was caused by an imbalance of the 4 humors

Andreas Vesalius

• Studied anatomy through disecting human bodies

• Published On the Structure of the Human Body

  • 200 drawings that furthered the understanding of the human body

William Harvey

• Discovered circulation of blood in veins and arteries 

• First to explain that the heart worked like a pump and the functions of its muscles and valves

Robert Boyle

• Created Royal Society

• Performed controlled experiments and published recordings on them

• Improved scientific instruments 

  • Experimented with an airpump and created a vacum 

• Created Boyle’s Law

  • The pressure of gas varies inversely with volume

Scientific Revolution

• Period between 16th and 17th centuries cultivated by thought

• Changes in frameworks for understanding 

• Shift in understanding the natural world and the methods used to examine it

Ptolemy

• Changed Aristotle’s physics

  • Planets moved in small circles (epicycles) 

  • Also moved along large circles (deferent)

• Ptolemy’s work also provided a basic foundation of knowledge about the earth

• Geography advanced cartography by representing a round earth divided with latitude marks

• Map only showed Europe Africa, and Asia

Natural Philosophy

• Physical nature of the universe and how it worked

• Based on ideas of Aristotle

Aristotle’s Views of the World

• Physics and motion on earth

• Celestial spheres (other planets) seen as perfect and pure

• Sublunar world (earth) made of 4 elements:

  • Fire

  • Water

  • Air

  • Earth 

• Believed force moved objects at a constant speed until force was removed

Nicolaus Copernicus

• First to hypothesize that the sun was the center of the universe

• Theorized that the stars and planets orbited around a fixed sun

Wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Heliocentric

• Model where the sun is the center of the universe

• Planets revolve around the sun

• Explained why the stars move in the sky

Tycho Brahe

• Agreed with Copernicus’s theory

• His study of a new star (in reality an exploding star) helped establish himself

• This challenged the idea that heavenly spheres (planets) were unchanging and therefore perfect

• Patroned first by King of Denark

• Then patroned by Rudolph II

• improved tables of planetary motion 

  • Dubbed Rudolphine Tables

• Beleived all planets revolved the sun except the earth and that the sun and the others planets revolved the earth

Johannes Kepler

• Brahe’s assistant 

• Used Brahe’s data to develop the Three Revolutionary Laws of Planetary Motion

• Work outlawed systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy 

• Published Rudolphine Tables

  • Listed over 1000 stars

  • Positions of Sun, Moon, and other planets

Galileo Galilei

• Challenged Aristotelian ideas of motion and disproved it

• Conducted experiment measuring movement of a rolling ball

• Showed that a uniform force would produce a uniform acceleration 

• Hypothesized idea that an object stays in motion until acted upon by external forces (inertia) 

• Discovered that the earth was cratered and the first four moons of Jupiter

Wrote The Sidereal Messenger

nuclear family

• multigen family is rare in west and central europe

  • exception is widowed parents moving in with their children’s families

delayed marriage and its causes

• western europe delayed marriage until mid-twenties

  • 10-20% never got married

  • caused as they waited to be financially independent → need to wait for inheritances or save up money

  • caused as laws said ppl needed permission from local leaders

• east and southern europe married around 20 and primarily lived in multigen families

• SIGNIFICANT as it led to less children, more economic advantage, and more gender inequality

urban jobs based on gender

• men

  • plowing, weaving

  • apprenticed to a trade → join guild and economic independene

  • if too poor for trades, then manual laborers

• women

  • urban migrants in northwestern europe were primarily women

  • trades limited to seamstress, draper or widwife

  • demand for female labor rose with rise of consumer economy in 18th century

  • servants to wealthy families

    • riddled with abuse and demanding work

  • prostitution

18th c. birth control methods

• useless ones

  • washing after sex, amulets, and burying afterbirth (placenta and goop evicted from body along with the child)

• sheep intestine condoms

  • earlier ones were made from cloth

  • usually expensive and used by rich and prostitutes

• coitus interruptus (pulling out)

• forced miscarriage though herbs

  • what we would now define as abortion

  • abortion in 18th century europe referred to termination past 4th month and was a crime

community controls

• community peer pressure that enforced moral standards

  • immediate marriage if the couple is premaritally pregnant

• people publicly humiliated moral offenders

illegitimacy explosion

• caused by increased independence and urban migration

• less social controls led to more sexual activity

• men didn’t follow through on promises of marriage after sexual activity/partner getting pregnant

  • economic hardship made maintaining families difficult

• SIGNIFICANT as old patterns of family began breaking down

prostitution

• laws became harsh again

  • brothels closed

  • punished by imprisonment and banishment

• constant threat of disease

• courtesans could be chosen by rich clients

  • safe from laws

  • luxorious life

  • aging/death of client could put them back to square one

homosexual subcultures

• more condemned that prostitution b/c it went against bible

  • laws got less harsh the more east you go

• royalty could be gay if they still had kids with their wife

• began in paris, london, and amstwerdam

  • slang, meeting places, and fashion emerged

  • in london men dressed and referred to themselves effeminately and in prostitution terms

• SIGNIFICANT as it started a new self identity of homosexual men being different that other men

  • think of it being a division between gay and heterosexual men, where previously it was a sliding scale of men with male lovers

• lesbian subcultures were less condemned and appeared at the end of the 18th century

  • women escaped heteronormativity by cross-dressing

wet nursing

• wealthy women hiring rural women to breastfeed their children

• enabled women to make a wage

• increased infant mortality

  • dangers of travel, poor condition of nurse’s homes

  • sharing milk between multiple babies

• enlightenment thinkers did not like wet nursing

  • thought it led to declining population, whihc came from women failing as mothers

infanticide

• lack of choices for single mothers w/ unwanted pregnancies led to massive increase in women killing their infants

• punishment was death, yet convictions dropped due to increasing social awareness of lack of options

• led to advent of orphanages/foundling homes

foundling homes

• homes for abandoned children

• by end of 18th century, they admitted 100000 babies anually

  • 1/3 of babies in paris were abandoned

• good side

  • example of christian charity

  • beginnings of education and future for the children

• bad side

  • most children died from malnutrition, disease, and neglect

edward gibbon

• english historian who said that infant mortality was just a fact of life and not to get too upset over it

rise and spread of elementary schools

• rose from enlightenment thinkers advocating to treat kids like kids and not small adults

  • freeing clothes, good education, development of their qualities

• elementary schools appeared in second half of 17th century for basic literacy

• heavily influenced by religion

  • protestant pro-literacy for bible standpoint

    • scotland and prussia (had mandatory school attendence)

  • catholic charity school for literacy and catechisms

    • run by parishes (france)

    • compulsory education in Habsburg empire

      • five hour, five days a week, ages 6 to 12

• SIGNIFICANT as it would increase literacy drastically, and lives/roles of children changed

popular literature

• increased literature = increased reading

• chapbooks

  • small, cheap christian stories

• entertaining fantasy stories

• practical stories

  • almanac was top tier for both peasants and elites

• enlightenment ideas

  • spread through posters, pamphlets, and word-of-mouth

blood sports

• bullbaiting and cockfighting

• reflection of violent society

• later condemned along with boxing and gambling

18th c. mass leisure

• blood sports and spectator sports like boxing

• drinking and chatting

• public fairs

carnival

• festival of excess before lent in catholic countries

• turns established order upside down through plays, parades and spectacles

• criticized in second half of 18th century

  • spain banned dragons and giants

  • napoleon outlawed it in venice

just price

• belief that prices should be fair and protect consumers and producers

  • govt should interfere if necessary

• SIGNIFICANT as without them, peasant had bread riots

changes in patterns of food consumption

• market gardening brings fresh produce to towns and cities

• ppl ate less meat due to price increases and right-to-hunt rules being restricted to landowners

• rise of potatoes

  • higher caloric yield = ppl are less hungry

  • became important staple in europe

• consumption of commodities became common for all social classes

  • sugar, coffee, tea, chocolate, and tobacco

  • desire to emualte wealth

coffee

• colonial import that grew economy

• rise of coffee culture and coffeehouses (associated with enlightenment)

sugar

• colonial import that grew economy

  • increases transatlantic slave trade

• luxury symbol + rise of european desserts

consumer revolution

• huge increase of available goods that led to massive growth in consumption

• SIGNIFICANT as it led to new type of society where people’s identities became tied to their purchases

  • new ideas of self-expression through stuff like clothing

• SIGNIFICANT as it took trendsetting away from elites and into consumer hands

changes to clothing consumption

• huge rise in consumption due to marketing campaigns, increased availability as women entered textile production en masse, and colonial economies lowered production costs

• SIGNIFICIANT as increased fashionability led to lines between class being blurred

• SIGNIFICANT as it led to new gender expressions → men stopped dressing as fancily/colorfully

  • women outconsumed and spread fashion

new attitudes toward privacy

• grew along new ideas of self-expression

• new levels of comfort

  • personal decor, individual plates, windows

catholic church in the 18th century

• still center of life in catholic areas

• greater control from state

  • monarchs in spain, portugal, and france took control of appointments, papal proclamations

  • pillar of political control in HRE

• jesuit missionaries did some converting, teaching, and ha political influence

  • a little too much influence bc royalty convinced the pope to dissolve them

pietism

• protestant revival

  • called for warm religion for all

  • pro-enthusiasm

  • radical stress on priesthood of all believers

• responsible for prussian educational reforms

john wesley

• catalyst of religious revival in england

• founder of methodists from his oxford bible club

• preached that all seeking salvation will be saved, to ppl of all classes → went against calvinism

• SIGNFICANT as he started a new denomination

methodists

• new denom from wesley

• all seeking salvation will be saved

jansenism

• catholic version of pietism calling for a return to austerity, original sin, and accepted predestination

• encouraged judiciary opposition to french monarchy in later half of 18th century

continued pagan practices

• lived on esp in rural areas → blessing food and harvest, animal sacrifice

• catholic belief in saintly relics

• booed by religous and secular authorities → pursuit of purification

  • led to reduction in witch hunts as elites and educated din’t believe in those anymore

faith healing

• belief that evil spirts caused illness → exorcisms

imports of medicinal plants

• came from asia, americas, and africa

• medical traditions from these places enabled treatment for fever and increased imports

improvements in sugery

• used to be just dudes like utchers and barbers, then became a real science

• advent of amputation and cauterization

• still performed in unsanitary conditions and many died from shock, pain, or diseases

midwives

• trained and occasionally guilded

• assisted in delivery and feminine health care → women-centered healthcare for women

• invention of forceps led surgeons to seek birth as a new field for them → slander campaign against midwives

• most non-elite woen still used midwives for delivery

eradication of smallpox

• english noblewoman introduced inoculation to england

  • she learnt about it in the ottoman empire

  • was condemned due to high death rates and infectious spread

• eradicated fully by edward jenner, inventor of vaccination

edward jenner

• invented vacciantion

• observed that those who had cowpox didn’t get smallpox

• new treatment saved millions of lives and smallpox disappeared

divine right*

monarch derives authority directly from God, rather than from the consent of people or any secular authority

• used to justify absolute monarchy, led to centralization of power in Europe like Louis XIV

Jean Bodin*

1530 - 1596 French jurist and political philosopher known for theory of sovereignty, said state must possess absolute power to maintain order

• ideas impacted governance structures of European states and provided theoretical support for absolutism

• influenced modern political thought + concept of state sovereignty

Philip IV

1605-1665, king of Spain during decline in Spanish power due to military defeats and economic difficulties

• Spain under him reign weakened Spain’s global dominance through military defeats and rise of rival powers in France and England

expulsion of Moriscos

forced removal of Muslim descendants of the Moors from Spain in the early 17th century

• aimed to create homogenous Catholic society

• led to economic decline in regions where Moriscos were prominent as they had been significant contributors to crafts

• played a role in Spanish decline

economic issues in 17th century Spain

depletion of silver reserves from New World, rising competition, inflation and unemployment due to Little Ice Age, expulsion of skilled Moriscos

• weakening of Spanish Empire, led to social unrest, limited military capabilities, eventual loss in Thirty Years’ War and other conflicts

independence of Dutch Republic & Portugal

Dutch gaining independence from Spain in 1648 and Portugal in 1640 after 60 years of dynastic union

• marked decline of Spanish dominance in Europe

• Rise of Dutch as commercial and naval power

Henry IV

Henry IV of France 1589-1610, first monarch of House of Bourbon

• Edict of Nantes in 1598 that diffused religious tension, ended War of Religion in France

• Helped rebuild French economy, set up foundation for future French dominance

Cardinal Richelieu

Cardinal Richelieu 1585-1642, French chief minister to Louis XIII

• Credited with consolidating royal power with Louis XIII, setting up the glorious reign of Louis XIV, laid foundation for absolutism in France

• Involvement in 30 Years’ War against Habsburgs, shifted balance of power in Europe

Louis XIII

Louis XIII king of France (r. 1610-1643) son of Henry IV

• establishment of strong central authority in France with Cardinal Richelieu

• Set stage for absolute rule of his son Louis XIV and emergence of France as dominant European power

intendants

royal officers in France appointed oversee provincial administration to ensure royal policies were enforced and implemented

• use of intendants helped centralize power in French monarchy

• Reduced influence of local nobles, enhanced efficiency of government

• crucial for consolidation of absolutism

Cardinal Mazarin

Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661), succeeded Richelieu and chief minister to Louis XIV

• laid foundation for Louis XIV’s later policies of absolute monarchy and expansion

• struggled to increase royal revenues led to uprisings of The Fronde

the Fronde

1648-1653 series of civil wars in France caused by dissatisfaction with royal authority, particularly under Cardinal Mazarin

• the failure of the Fronde prepared the way for absolutism of Louis XIV’s personal reign

• reinforced Louis XIV’s resolve to centralize power

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

1685 by Louis XIV retracted worship rights granted to Huguenots

• severely weakened Huguenot community and led to economic and social consequences as many skilled artisans and merchants fled country, impacting France’s economy and religious landscape

Versailles

Palace of Versailles was the royal residence and political center of France under Louis XIV, located outside of Paris

• centralized court in Versailles, kept nobles close to him to diminish their influence while enhancing his prestige and authority over the state

• other monarchs imitated the Versailles and its political strategy

Louis’s control of French nobles

Louis XIV tightly controlled French nobility by centralizing power in his court by forcing nobles to live at Versailles, made them reliant on royal favor for positions and privileges

• strengthened the absolute rule of Louis XIV

• model of controlling nobility became template for other European monarchs

Jacques-Benigne Bossuet

French bishop and theologian known for defense of divine right of kings, arguing monarchs are appointed by God and accountable only to Him

• provided intellectual support for absolutism across Europe

• divine right doctrine became cornerstone of political legitimacy for many European absolute monarchs

court life at Versailles

involved elaborate rituals, ceremonies, and rigid hierarchy designed to glorify Louis XIV and keep nobility preoccupied with courtly matters

• Versailles became model of centralized court life that was imitated across Europe

• Model spread French culture and influence across Europe

system of patronage

Louis XIV’s system of patronage was the distribution of titles, positions, and privileges in exchange for loyalty and service

• created network of dependent nobles and officials, centralized power

• rulers across Europe adopted similar systems to maintain loyalty and control

women in Louis XIV’s court

important social and political roles, often influencing decisions through salons and personal relationships with courtiers and the king

• significant influence in shaping court life, intellectual trends, and politics

• salons later became centers of Enlightenment thought

salons

intellectual gatherings often hosted by prominent women where they discussed contemporary literature, politics, and philosophy

• key role in intellectual life of Europe, helped spread Enlightenment ideas that would later challenge absolutism and traditional authority

• centered in France but similar concepts emerged across Europe

military revolution

refers to the significant changes in military tactics, technology, and organization between 16th and 17th centuries, rise of professional standing armies and use of firearms

• profound effect on the balance of power in Europe as states with strong centralized governments, like France, were able to build large, disciplined armies

• led to more sustained and destructive conflicts, such as 30 Years’ War

• increased power of centralized states like Prussia, Sweden, France

• weakened decentralized feudal systems

War of Spanish Succession

1701-1714 conflict over who would succeed Spanish Throne after death of Charles II, involving France and Spain vs a coalition of European powers on the other

• marked end of French expansionism under Louis XIV and altered balance of power in Europe

• resulted in Treaty of Utrecht that reshaped European territorial boundaries, established principle of “balance of power”

Peace of Utrecht

1713, series of treaties that ended War of Spanish Succession, redistributing territories among major European powers

• established new balance of power in Europe by preventing unification of France and Spain under single monarch

• marked beginning of a century of relative peace in Europe as the balance of power doctrine took hold