Studied by 2 people
What is conditioning?
The process by which certain kinds of experience make particular actions more or less likely
Its a type of associative learning
Its a theory that a response to a stimulus by a person or animal can be modified by “learning” or “conditioning”
What is learning?
The biological, cognitive, and social processes through which an individuals makes meaning from their experiences, resulting in long-lasting changes in their behaviour, skills and knowledge
The process of acquiring knowledge, skills or behaviour through experience
Learning is generally a permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience
It can be intentional or unintentional
Learners can be active or passive
What is a passive learner?
When the learner is learning without the intention of learning, and learns through exposure to information or behaviour
Involved in classical conditioning
What is an active learner?
When the learner is intentionally learning and is engaging with the information, through discussion or problem solving
Involved in operant learning
What is classical conditioning?
A fundamental form of associative learning shared across species in which an organism learns to associate an originally neutral stimulus, such as any environmental sound, with the occurrence of a naturally rewarding or threatening event (unconditioned stimulus) that causes a reflex response (unconditioned response), such as the presence of a predator causing fear; through repeated experiences of the neutral stimulus preceding or co-occurring with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that on its own caused an automatic conditioned response similar to the unconditioned response, as if the unconditioned stimulus had occurred
An association is made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus that can cause a conditioned response
The learner is passive
The response is a reflex, so involuntary
The stimulus is presented before the response
What is a neutral stimulus?
A stimulus (internal or external) that does not naturally cause a reflex response
In the case of Pavlov, the bell was the neutral stimulus (it was external) that does not naturally cause the dogs to have an involuntary response, this being salivating
A neutral stimulus transforms into a conditioned stimulus once it causes a conditioned response, without the presences of the unconditioned stimulus
Abbreviated it is NS
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
A biologically significant stimulus, such as food or a sudden loud sound, that causes a reflex response
In the case of Pavlov, the food naturally caused a reflex response, that being salivating
Abbreviated it is UCS
What is an unconditioned response?
An involuntary reflex response to a biologically significant stimulus (also known as an unconditioned stimulus)
In the case of Pavlov, the salivation is the involuntary reflex response
Abbreviated it is UCR
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to cause a reflex response through its association with an unconditioned stimulus
In the case of Pavlov, the bell progressed from a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus when the bell was able to cause the dogs to salivate
Abbreviated it is CS
What is a conditioned response?
A reflex response to a conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus that would usually cause it
In the case of Pavlov, the conditioned response was when the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell (conditioned stimulus)
Abbreviated it is CR
What are the phases of classical conditioning?
Phase 1: Before conditioning
Phase 2: During conditioning
Phase 3: After conditioning
What occurs before classical conditioning?
This phase describes the relationship that exists between stimuli and response before any conditioning trials occur
In the case of Pavlov, the bell is the neutral stimulus (NS) because it does not naturally cause salivation
The food is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it naturally causes salivation
Salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR) because it is a reflex (or involuntary behaviour) that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus, that being food
In this stage mention what is the neutral stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response
What occurs during classical conditioning?
This phase describes the process of learning the associations between the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
In the case of Pavlov, Pavlov sounded the bell (neutral stimulus) immediately before the presentation of the food (unconditioned stimulus response) and the natural salivation response (unconditioned response)
In this stage mention when the neutral stimulus is presented in relation to the unconditioned stimulus and its relation to the unconditioned response
What occurs after classical conditioning
This phase describes the process used to test whether the neutral stimulus has become the conditioned stimulus
In the case of Pavlov, he did this by sounding the bell on its own, without the food (unconditioned stimulus) and measuring the salivation response (unconditioned response)
If the dogs produce saliva in response to the bell, then the bell has transformed from a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus because it caused a conditioned response of salivation
In this stage mention the neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of apparent extinction
What is extinction?
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is applied repeatedly without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
In Pavlov’s scenario, the bell (conditioned stimulus) was presented without the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), meaning that the dogs no longer salivated at the sound of the bell, meaning the salivation response became extinct
What is learnt in classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning produces a learned involuntary association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus that produces an automatic conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus
This learning is automatic and outside of the learner’s conscious control
This learning is represented implicitly in the learner’s nervous system by the strengthening of neural connections between neurons that fire in response to the neutral stimulus and the neurons that fires in response to the unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response
This learning is represented through long-term potentiation
What is the survival value of conditioning?
A learned association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response prepares our body for what is to happen next
Learning about stimuli that predicts damage is important for survival
Fear is an adaptive emotional response as it may help us stay away from danger
What is the Little Albert experiment?
Watson believed that all human learning and development could be explained as the result of learned associations between environmental stimuli and innate emotional responses
Watson selected a white rat that was initially a neutral stimulus that would become a conditioned stimulus
When Albert touched the rat, a bar was struck behind his head making a loud noise
Later on when Albert was presented the rat, without the sound, he was cautious
Once it was presented with the sound another three times, Albert become startled and distressed when he interacted with the rat
Albert had been conditioned with a strong fear response to the white rat when it was presented alone
After 1 month, with no further conditioning, Albert was still wary of the rat (CS), but the conditioned response was weakened
How is classical conditioning used in advertising?
What is Thorndike’s law of effect?
Behavioural responses that were closely followed by satisfying results were most likely to become established patterns and to occur again in response to the same stimulus.
What is operant conditioning?
A learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour
Based on Thorndike’s law of effect
Behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it is followed by desirable consequence
Behaviour is less likely to be repeated if it is followed by an undesirable consequence, or it the behaviour leads to losing a desirable consequence
Role of learner: Active
Timing and stimulus response: Stimulus (reinforcement) after the response
Nature of response: Voluntary
What are the phases involved in operant conditioning?
There are 3 phases
Antecedent (A)
Behaviour or Operant response (B)
Consequence (C)
What occurs in the antecedent or stimulus phase?
The antecedent comes before the behaviour
A stimulus that occurs before a voluntary behaviour and its consequence that serves to cue the behaviour
The events that precede the behaviour
During this phase, the antecedent is that which initiates, stimulates or triggers the behaviour
Antecedent is important if we want to control when the behaviour occurs as it is what triggers the behaviour
The stimulus that causes the behaviour
For example, an upcoming psychology exam
In the case of Skinner’s box, it was the red light being turned on
What occurs in the behaviour or operant phase?
A response or set of responses that acts on the environment to produce an effect
The behaviour or operant response is the voluntary behaviour produced by the learner
An operant is a response or behaviour that generates consequences.
The behaviour is also known as the operant response. This is where an individual acts upon their environment.
Behaviour is the voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent
For example, as a result of the psychology exam (antecedent), an individual would study a lot (the behaviour)
In the case of Skinner’s box, it was the behaviour of pressing the lever
What occurs in the consequence phase?
The environmental stimulus or event that follows the operant response
The consequence is the outcome that follows the behaviour
The consequence is that which shapes or guides future behaviour
The outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will occur again
The consequences can be positive or negative reinforcement (encourage the behaviour to be repeated)
Or the consequence can be positive or negative punishment (discourage the behaviour to be repeated)
For example, getting a great score on the psychology exam (consequence: reinforcement) will encourage more studying for future assessments
In the case of Skinner’s box, the outcomes of lever-pressing is that food is released into the rats food bowl (consequence was positive reinforcement)
What is observational learning?
A form of social learning in which the learner attends to the behaviours of another person, encodes the behaviours in memory, and is motivated to rehearse and/ or reproduce the behaviour based on their interpretation of the reinforcing consequences of the behaviour
It is a form of social learning unlike associative learning in classical and operant conditioning
The person being observed is called the model
The model can be live/real or symbolic such as a cartoon character, a television actor or a character in a book
The more similar the learner is to the model, the more likely the learner will pay attention
The less self-esteem and confidence of the learner, the more likely they are to imitate the model
There are four principles of observational learning
Learning occurs by observing actions and consequences
Learning can occur without an immediate change in behaviour, meaning the learning can be latent (dormant or underdeveloped) and the change in behaviour can occur at a later time
Cognition (thought, understanding, reasoning) is important. The learner is aware of future consequences
There is a link between operant condition theory and cognitive learning theory
What are the stages of observational learning?
There are 5 stages
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement
What occurs in the attention stage?
The cognitive process used to focus awareness on a model
The learner is focusing their awareness on the behaviour’s of the model
Learning cannot occur without attending to the model
The learner must actively attend to the behaviour being observed
They must actively pay attention
Attention is influenced by
How perceptive is the learner?
How motivated is the learner?
Interest level of the learner
The distracters present during the observation process
What occurs in the retention stage?
Cognitive process used to encode and store knowledge of observed behaviour in a memory as a meaning mental representation
Involves the process of forming memory representations for the behaviours we observe
The learned behaviour must be stored in memory as a meaning mental representation in two forms
Learner encodes visual, auditory and motor imagery of the situation and behaviours
The learner encodes symbolic (language-based) representations as they think about the meaning of the behaviour, the situation and the consequences
Learned behaviour may not be needed until sometime after learning has occurred
What occurs in the reproduction stage?
Cognitive process used to re-enact an observed behaviour or to rehearse it mentally
The process that occurs when the observer rehearse the behaviour the have observed in their mind, and when they practice the behaviour by physically performing the sequence of actions that was observed
The learner must have the physical and intellectual ability to reproduce what has been observed
What occurs in the motivation stage?
The cognitive processes that influences whether the learner decides to reproduce an observed behaviour
The learner must be motivated and want to copy the learned behaviour
This will depend on the consequences or reinforcement
What occurs in the reinforcement stage?
A consequence of behaviour that strengthens the likelihood of the behaviour being reproduced
The prospect of a positive reward will increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be imitated
The observation of a punishment for the behaviour will decrease the likelihood of the behaviour being imitated
What was Bundura’s Bobo Doll Experiment?
This was an independent group design
The participants were split up into the experimental and control group
Those in the experimental control group were shown a model (in some variations of the model was a person or a cartoon character) acting violently towards the bobo doll
The control group were shown a model (in some variations of the model was a person or a cartoon character) playing appropriately with the bobo doll
It was observed that children in the experimental group shown then model displaying violent behaviour with the bobo doll imitate the violent behaviour with the bobo doll
In variations the gender of the model and the participant had an effect on whether the participant would imitate the behaviour. If model and participation are the same gender, the participant is more likely to imitate the behaviour
What is positive?
The addition of a reinforcer or punisher
Adding good (reinforcement)
Adding bad (punishment)
What is negative?
The subtraction of a reinforcer or punisher
Taking good (punishment)
Taking bad (reinforcer)
What is reinforcement?
Any stimulus (an event or actions) that strengthens or increases the likelihood of the response (behaviour) that it follows
The reinforcer comes after the response (behaviour)
More likely to produce behaviours that have been associated with pleasant consequences
Reinforcement makes the behaviour stronger regardless if it is positive or negative
What is punishment?
A consequence of behaviour that weakens the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
The punisher makes the behaviour weaker regardless if it is positive or negative punishment
Less likely to produce behaviours that have been associated with unpleasant consequences
What is positive reinforcement?
The addition of a rewarding stimulus (reinforcer) as a consequence of a behaviour, making the behaviour more likely in the future
A stimulus which strengthens a response by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence
Examples include: Money, grades, applause, in Skinner’s experiment=food pellets
What is negative reinforcement?
The removal of an aversive stimulus (punisher) as a consequence of a behaviour, making the behaviour less likely in the future
A stimulus that strengthens a response by the reduction, removal or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus
The behaviour that removes, reduces or prevents an unpleasant stimulus is strengthen by the response.
Example includes: taking Panadol for a headache, driving slowly to avoid a speeding fine, Skinner’s experiment=electric shock
What is positive punishment?
The addition of an aversive stimulus (punisher) as a consequence of a behaviour, making the behaviour less likely in the future
Delivery of a bad stimulus following an undesirable response
For example, being given more homework if a student misbehaves
What is negative punishment?
The removal of a rewarding stimulus (reinforcer) as a consequence of a behaviour, making the behaviour less likely in the future
Removal of a rewarding, valued stimulus
For example, your licence being taken away for drink driving
What is memory?
Memory is an active information-processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers information
It does 4 things
Receives information
Organizes information
Stores information
Recovers information
Human memory deals with information in a sequence which involves 3 key processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
What processes does memory go through?
encoding
storage
retrieval
What is encoding?
encoding: The processing of information in short-term memory to transfer it to long-term memory
Encoding can either be
Automatic: Little to no mental effort
Effortful: Deliberate conscious effort
What is storage?
The retention of information in memory over time
What is retrieval?
The process of bringing to mind knowledge of events or facts stored in explicit memory or of initiating and executing an implicit procedural memory
Brining memory from long term to short term
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Also known as Rote rehearsal
Mainly concerns short term memory
This is the process of repeatedly saying or thinking about a piece of information
This rehearsal only temporarily maintains information in short term memory
Not the best technique to store memory
What is elaborative rehearsal?
Makes the memorized information meaningful
Mainly concerned with long-term memory
Involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered
Relate the new meaning to prior knowledge, make the information personally meaningful, when then leads to a much stronger long-term memory
This helps store the memory
What is attention?
Focusing awareness on to said sensory information
What is sensory memory?
Entry point of new information and the information is in its original sensory form (it is not encoded) and stores all sensory experiences for a brief time
It includes what we see, hear and feel
Incoming sensory information is stored in separate sub-systems called sensory registers
Information that is not attended to is lost
What we see is known as iconic memory
What we hear is known as echoic memory
Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: 0.2-4 seconds
What is iconic memory?
This is visual memory. It takes the form of raw visual images in the original sensory form.
Capacity: All the objects in a visual field
Duration: 1/3 of a second (0.33)- Duration is very brief so that images do not overlap for too long and blur one’s perception
What is echoic memory?
This is auditory memory. It takes the form of raw sounds of speech, objects and nature. It plays an important role in speech and language comprehension. Enables the storage of all sounds that make a word so it can be processed as a whole and allows and entire sequence of worlds to be held (sentences) so meaning can be formed.
Capacity: Stores al the sounds within our range if hearing or provided by the sensory receptor (ear)
Duration: 3-4 seconds
What is short term memory?
A temporary memory store that represents information that is the current focus of attention, with limited capacity (72 items) and a duration of several seconds or for as long as information can be actively rehearsed
Information that is actively processed in short-term memory through the process of encoding, can be transfer to long-term memory
Maintenance rehearsal is used to help retain the information temporally, and creates weak long-term memory traces
On the other hand, interpreting information in short-term memory by relating it to information retrieved in long-term memory results in the storage of this new information into long-term memory
Sensory information that is attended to during sensory memory passed on to short term memory
Information can entre short term memory through sensory memory and from long term memory through retrieval
Unrehearsed information decays rapidly
Or information is overwritten due to interference form subsequent items
Capacity: 7 give or take 2 items (5-9 pieces of information)
Duration 12-30 seconds
What is chunking?
Grouping together separate items into a single, larger chunks of information
Allows us to increase the capacity of short term memory
For example, capacity is still 7, but now its 7 bits or chunks of information, that contain more information within these chunks
W N V D C E I V D C S V
NSW, VIC, VCE, DVD
What is long term memory?
The set of memory storage systems that enables us to store and retrieve knowledge and skills acquired over a lifetime with apparently unlimited capacity.
Ability to retrieve any given long term memory trace depends on how it was encoded and the cue that are available when we want to remember it
The deeper the level of encoding, the increase in storage strength and would make retrieval more likely
As long as there are correct cues, information can be retrieved
Information in long term memory is encoded by its meaning (semantically) and stored in semantic networks
There are two types of long-term memory
Implicit (procedural)
Explicit (declarative)
Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: Unlimited
What are retrieval cues?
These are stimuli that assist in retrieving memories
Retrieval cues assists memory through reminding us of past experiences
Are particularly useful when the cues available match the cues that were present at encoding
What is the serial position effect?
Ability to retrieve information is affected by the position of the information in the sequence
What is explicit memory?
Also known as declarative memory
The kind of long-term memory we use when consciously remembering information about facts (semantic) or events (episodic)
What is the primacy effect?
When the first few pieces of information are remembered better
This occurs because the first few words are repeatedly rehearse, which increases the likelihood they are transferred into long-term memory
While poor recall in the middle is explained by decay due to lack of maintenance rehearsal, the last few pieces of information remain in short term memory, which displaces earlier items from short term memory and interferes with their retrieval
What is the recency effect?
When the last few pieces of information are remembered better
Occurs because the items near the end of the list are still contained in sensory and short-term memory
What is episodic memory?
Part of explicit memory
The component of explicit long-term memory used for storing and retrieving memories of personally experienced events and for imagining ourselves experiencing further events, accompanied by the feeling of mental time travel; also called episodic-autobiographical memory
Your experience this memory, rather than remember it
Memory of life events, personal experiences, autobiographical (episode). Personal knowledge
You experience episodic memory, rather than remember it
For example, remembering the fight time I bought a piano
What is semantic memory?
A type of explicit memory that consists of general knowledge or facts
The component of explicit long-term memory that we used when we encode, store and retrieve factual and conceptual knowledge, and to recognise objects, people or places; accompanied by awareness of knowing without a feeling of reliving the past
You remember this memory, rather than experience it
Information we have about the world, Areas of expertise, academic knowledge, important places, meaning of words, rules, famous people or events etc. Facts that do not rely on specific time or place
What is implicit memory?
Form unconsciously
Also known as procedural'
The kind of long-term memory that is demonstrated through changes in behaviour and adaptive responses as a result of repetition or practice, without conscious recollection of the knowledge that underlies the performance; can operate independent
Memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously and involves knowing how to do something. How to do something
For example, remembering how to play the piano
Knowing how to do something
What is Dadirri
It is a way of knowing
Dr Miriam-Rose Ungunmerr-Baumann, Elder of the Ngangikurungkurr people defines Dadirri as the practice of silent still awareness
Dadirri allows people to notice the relationships between the entities and events that occur within Country
Observing closely the interrelationships that exist between entities gives people a profound knowledge of the living system of which they are a part
What is country?
An Indigenous Australian understanding of place as a system if interrelated living entities, including the leaner, their family, communities and interrelationships with land, sky, waterways, geographical features, climate, animals and plants
Country refers to the living systems of all entities that exist in the universe, created by our ancestors (and these ancestors still live within Country in different forms)
People are only one part of country and are embedded in relationships with the more-than-human-entities within this system (more than human entities include, sky, geographical features and so on)
Country is a multimodal system that includes:
people
entities such as artwork, ceremonial objects and tools
laws, philosophies, medicines, songs, ceremonies … and many more.
How is kinship displayed in Aboriginal and Torre Strait Islander culture?
A person’s relationships within Country is defined within the kinship system
Kinship system defines the relationships that people have with each other, the knowledge that are responsible for and the entities within Country that they have a responsibility to care for
The distribution of knowledge and responsibility ensure that all aspects of Country are maintained, and that everyone plays their part within the wider knowledge system
A kinship system – the relationship that people have with each other, the knowledges and the entities within Country.
This is more than just ‘blood’ relationships.
Terms like mother, father, cousin are used for relationships within and across generations of multiple families.
Knowledge is distributed throughout these kinship structures, allowing knowledge to be passed on
What are the five ways of knowing?
Aboriginal ways of knowing through engaging in cultural practice, may include drawing, painting or carving visual symbols and the practice of yarning
The Sand talk symbols for knowing are
Kinship mind: improving learning and memory through relationships and connectedness. There are no isolated variables
Story mind: Role of narrative in memory and knowledge transmission
Dreaming mind: Using metaphors to understand ideas
Ancestor mind: Connecting with a timeless state of mind that is optimal neural state for learning. It is characterised by complete concentration, engagement, immersion and losing track of time. Can be achieved through engaging in cultural activities and immersing themselves in the process
Pattern mind: Seeing entire systems and the trends and pattern within in them and using these to make accurate predication and find solutions to problems within those systems
What is yarning?
It is a way of knowing
It is an Aboriginal cultural practice used for sharing knowledge between people
Takes the forms of a conversation in which people seek to deepen their understanding of an idea, experience or process
Structure of a yarn is a free-flowing conversation
Based on open questioning rather than being analytic
When yarning each speaker should build upon what previous speakers have said rather than seeking to defeat them in debate
What is situated multi-model systems approach?
The situated multimodal systems approach to learning recognises that the culture we grow up in, the landscapes that surround us, and the languages we speak strongly influence how we come to understand the universe and our place within it
The situated component refers to the importance of the location of the learner in relation to other learners and all other entities within a culture. Situated learning occurs in authentic settings (situations), rather than in a formal classroom.
The multimodal component refers to the different formats used for sharing knowledge within a culture and how these reinforce each other.
The systems component refers to the networks of people, places and living and non-living entities that together encode the knowledge stored within a culture.
What does Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people ways of knowing being and doing mean?
Although there are many distinct languages and cultural practices amongst the many different Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural groups within Australia, there are some common ways of knowing, being and doing that broadly define the situated multi-modal systems approach.
Ways of knowing, being and doing is a phrase that refers to distinctive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural ways of understanding (knowing), relating (being) and acting (doing).
What is symbolic learning?
Symbols: objects or signs that are used to represent (or mean) something else. They allow us to express ideas about concepts that go beyond stimuli that are immediately present in the environment.
Symbolic learning: occurs through language and cultural practices such as stories, songs, dance, art and ceremonial practices, as well as through formal texts.
Symbolic communication: allows us to share culturally important knowledge, such as laws, biological, geographical and astronomical knowledge, land-management practices, medicinal knowledge, how to make and operate new technologies, and skills for survival.
Symbolic learning is multimodal in that knowledge can be communicated and interpreted through different sensory modes.
For example, Western education values the written word as the primary mode for storing and sharing knowledge across generations. In contrast, many of the world’s First Nations (Indigenous) cultures are oral cultures that use modes other than writing to store and communicate knowledge across generations.
What are the ways of knowing?
Learn through Country
In a systems model of learning, people learn from, with and through other entities, not about them.
What are Songlines?
It is a way of knowing
Songlines, sometimes called Songspirals or Dreaming tracks, refer to the trade and ceremonial routes that cross Country, and to the sung narratives that encode knowledge of creation stories about aspects of Country.
These stories contain knowledge of plants, animals and other natural resources as well as knowledge of the cultural laws that govern how people interact with Country and the complex system of kinship relationships that determine how knowledge is shared.
Songlines represent the body of ancestral knowledge that has been passed down over thousands of generations known as the Dreaming in English.
This knowledge is ‘patterned on Country’ – knowledge is stored within the landscape, in constellations in night sky, in art and cultural objects and in the system of kinship relationships.
These physical places, objects and relationships become the libraries in which knowledge is stored and provide powerful contextual cues for knowledge encoded in stories, songs and dances.
Within this situated multimodal systems approach, different people within the community hold different kinds of knowledge depending on their role within the system of kinship relationships.
The knowledge is not fixed in the past – it is constantly evolving
Songlines contain narratives that provides information that help with survival and knowledge about a place, plants, animals and all that is necessary to help survive
Songlines also help in someway map out
What are the ways of being?
Australian First Nations peoples’ ways of being are relational and located (i.e. situated). This means that an individual’s role as a knowledge holder is determined by their relationship to family, community and to Country.
Being refers to the ways that an individual attends to and interacts with other entities within the system.
One way of being within Indigenous Australian cultures is a practice that the Ngangikurungkurr people of the Daly River in the Northern Territory call Dadirri. In English, Dadirri translates as ‘deep listening’.
However, listening deeply and observing closely, the interrelationships that exist between all entities goes further than behavioural models of learning – it gives people a profound knowledge of their environment as a living system of which they are a part.
What are the ways of doing?
Ways of doing refers to multimodal cultural practices used to convey knowledge.
These practices embody and communicate Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ ways of knowing and being.
They include storytelling in traditional languages; creating art (drawing, painting, crafting objects); performing songs and dances; collecting and hunting traditional foods and medicines; astronomical knowledge, and traditional land management practices such as cultural burning.
The structure of the story provides a memorable framework in which to embed knowledge. The stories tell of journeys across Country that encode places that are significant for finding water, food and medicines, as well as containing knowledge about things that are dangerous and about the consequences for people’s behaviours.
The stories encode knowledge in layers, with deeper levels of understanding relating to cultural laws and knowledge being revealed at different stages of learning.
Singing stories and linking them to dance, drawn symbols, objects and places helps to make the knowledge more memorable.
Songs, dances and images have a physical structure that allows each phrase or action to serve as a cue for the next. Embedding knowledge in procedural forms of learning and memory ensures that the knowledge is encoded deeply and in multiple formats.
What brain structures are involved in memory?
Neocortex
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Basal ganglia
Cerebellum
What is the role of the hippocampus?
Plays a crucial role in binding together the different elements of our experiences and consolidating thee explicit memories in the neocortex
It is involved in explicit memory
When the hippocampus is damaged some problems include
Amnesia- can’t make or remember memories that are explicit
However, they are still able to remember and create implicit memories
Information about our experience is sent from the neocortex to the hippocampus, which then binds the separate source of information about the episode into an integrated memory trace, which it then feeds back to the neocortex
It encodes explicit memories
Degeneration in the hippocampus is a leading contributor to the development of Alzheimer’s disease
What is the role of the amygdala?
Processes emotional memories and retrieves explicit memories (specifically ones that are emotional driven)
Plays an important role in the rapid and unconscious processing of emotions (implicit memory) and feeds this information to the hippocampus so that emotional information can be integrated into explicit memories
It is involved in explicit memories
Consolidates the emotional component of memories
Adrenalin also aids in the formation and strength of emotional memories
Found in front of the hippocampus
When both amygdala are damaged, individuals are unable to experience the emotions associated with episodic memories and do not acquire implicit fear responses
Emotional memories are more memorable than non-emotional memories
What is the role of the neocortex?
It is responsible for attention, thought, perception- all which influence memory. Specifically it stores episodic and semantic memories one that are encoded and transferred from the hippocampus
Stores explicit memories and influences attention to create episodic memory
It process the sensory, motor and perceptual information hat we become aware of
Prefrontal cortex controls the higher cognitive functions of attention, thought and language that allows is to reflect consciously on our experiences
It is involved in explicit memory
It is the outer layer of the cortex
Also involved in higher order brain functions and is also heavily linked to processing and recognition of auditory stimuli
Once the memories are fact or known in the amygdala and hippocampus, it goes to the neocortex
What is the role of the role basal ganglia
implicit
habit formation, dopamine
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN DAMAGED
WHERE IS IT FOUND?
What is the role of the cerebellum?
implicit
movement, balance
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN DAMAGED
WHERE IS IT FOUND?
What is amnesia?
Amnesia A general term for memory disorders that cause difficulty with learning new information or remembering the past.
What is anterograde amnesia?
antero means before or forward
It is a type of memory loss in which new memoires cannot be made
Damage to the median temporal lobe system (this includes the hippocampus and amygdala) and hippocampus causes this
A form of memory loss in which explicit knowledge of events and facts experienced after the amnesia-causing event cannot be consolidated.
What is the neural basis for episodic memory?
Prefrontal cortex directs attention to the regions of the neocortex that are processing the sensory-motor and perceptual aspects of the experience
This information is then sent to the hippocampus, which then binds the sperate sources of information about the episode into an integrated memory trace (a long term change in the brain that represents and stores memory) which it then feedback to the neocortex. The feedback between the hippocampus and neocortex strengthens the activation of neocortical neurons, also known as long-term potentiation
Long term potentiation is the mechanism that consolidates long-term episodic memoires in the neocortex
Retrieval of episodic memoires occurs when the connection between the hippocampus and neocortex are reconstructed in response to a cue
What is the neural bass of semantic memory?
Semantic knowledge is distributed throughout the sam regions of the neocortex that
What is retrograde amnesia?
retro means back or backwards
Form of memory loss that causes an inability to remember the past
What is mnemonics?
Systems, techniques or strategies implemented to consciously improve memory
Helps with encoding, storing and retrieving information by turning it into something more meaningful
Essentially devices or techniques used to aid the encoding, storage and retrieval of information
What are the types of mnemonics?
In written cultures, there are three main mnemonics
Acronyms
Acrostic
Method of Loci
What is an acronym?
Acronyms: A mnemonic device in which the first letter of each item to be recalled is placed together to create a word.
The first letters of items to be remembered form a pronounceable world to aid memory
Makes a word
What is an acrostic?
Acrostics: A mnemonic device in which the first letter of each item to be recalled become the first letter of a new word, and these worlds are then put to together into a phrase, rhyme, or poem to aid memory
Makes a phrase or sentence
What is the method of loci?
Method of loci or memory palace: A mnemonic device that convert items into mental images and associates them with specific locations to aid memories
1. Begin with a well known place
Attack each word or concept to be remember to each location
3. Take a walk physical or mentally through the space to recall each of these items
This method of remembering allows individual to expand on information and order and sequence things as well
What is aphantasia?
Aphantasia: A phenomenon in which individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery
Mental imagery is done through the visual cortex and not our eyes
People can be born with it and can have it after brain injury
Implications
People with aphantasia are unable to generate mental imagery, reduced ability to recall episodic memories and have a hard time imagining the future
Because mental imagery is a crucial part of autobiographical memory, not being able to have that visual image means there is a reduced ability to recall episodic memoires and autobiographical memories and because autobiographical is needed to image future events, since people with aphantasia have reduced ability to recall autobiographical memory, they have a reduced ability to image the future
In fMRI studies shows that the hippocampal-neocortical network is active during retrieval of autobiographical memoires and episodic future thinking
Due to aphantasia reducing this ability, fMRI studies on individuals with aphantasia will show reduce hippocampal-neocortical network activity
What is Alzeihmer’s Disease?
What happens in the progression of Alzeihmer’s disease?
What brain strucutres are affected by Alzeihmer’s disease?
What is autobiographical memory?
Autobiographical memory: A component of explicit memory that represents our memories of personally experienced events and self-knowledge
Autobiographical memory includes
Episodic biographical memory
Semantic autobiographical memory
What is episodic autobiographical memory?
Abbreviated to EAM
Provides first-person experience of remembering events from the past and imagining ourselves in the future
What is semantic autobiographical memory?
Abbreviated to SAM
Builds a stable core of self-knowledge and identity over time. SAM is generalised from EAM
Does autobiographical memory affect mental imagery?
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