subcultural strain theories

• Subcultural strain theories see deviance as the product of what?

• They see subcultures as providing what? - mainly those in the w____ c____.

• From this point of view, subcultures are a s____ to a p____ and therefore f____ for their m____, even if not for w____ s__.

• Subcultural strain theories both c___ Merton's theory and b___ on it.

• Subcultural strain theories see deviance as the product of a delinquent subculture with different values from those of mainstream society.

• They see subcultures as providing an alternative opportunity structure for those who are denied the chance to achieve by legitimate means - mainly those in the working class.

• From this point of view, subcultures are a solution to a problem and therefore functional for their members, even if not for wider society.

• Subcultural strain theories both criticise Merton's theory and build on it.

Cohen: status frustration

• Cohen (1955) agrees with Merton that deviance is largely a lower-class phenomenon.

• It results from the inability of those in the lower classes to achieve mainstream success goals by legitimate means such as educational achievement.

However, Cohen criticises Merton's explanation of deviance on two grounds:

1. ✗- Merton sees deviance as an individual response to strain, ignoring the fact that much deviance is committed in or by groups, especially among the young.

2. Merton focuses on utilitarian crime committed for material gain, such as theft or fraud. He largely ignores crimes such as assault and vandalism, which may have no economic motive.

Cohen: status frustration

• Cohen (1955) agrees with Merton that deviance is largely a lower-class phenomenon.

• It results from the inability of those in the lower classes to achieve mainstream success goals by legitimate means such as educational achievement.

However, Cohen criticises Merton's explanation of deviance on two grounds:

1. ✗- Merton sees deviance as an individual response to strain, ignoring the fact that much deviance is committed in or by groups, especially among the young.

2. Merton focuses on utilitarian crime committed for material gain, such as theft or fraud. He largely ignores crimes such as assault and vandalism, which may have no economic motive.

Cohen: status frustration

• Cohen focuses on deviance among who.

• He argues that they face a_____ in the m____-c____ dominated school system. They suffer from c____ d____ and lack the s____ to achieve.

• Their inability to succeed in this m_____-c___ world leaves them where?

• As a result of being unable to achieve status by l_____ m____ (e_____), the boys suffer what?

• They face a problem of a____ to the low status they are given by m__ society.

• In Cohen's view, they resolve their frustration by rejecting what? and they turn instead to other boys in the same situation, forming or joining a d___ s___.

Cohen: status frustration

• Cohen focuses on deviance among working-class boys.

• He argues that they face anomie in the middle-class dominated school system. They suffer from cultural deprivation and lack the skills to achieve.

• Their inability to succeed in this middle-class world leaves them at the bottom of the official status hierarchy.

• As a result of being unable to achieve status by legitimate means (education), the boys suffer status frustration.

• They face a problem of adjustment to the low status they are given by mainstream society.

• In Cohen's view, they resolve their frustration by rejecting mainstream middle-class values and they turn instead to other boys in the same situation, forming or joining a delinquent subculture.

alternative status alternative

• According to Cohen, the subculture's values are s____, m____, h____ and c_____ for those outside it.

• The delinquent subculture inverts the values of mainstream society - what dies this mean?

• For example, society upholds regular s____ an____ and r____ for p__, whereas in the s____, boys gain status from what?

alternative status alternative

• According to Cohen, the subculture's values are spite, malice, hostility and contempt for those outside it.

• The delinquent subculture inverts the values of mainstream society - turns them upside dow - what society condemns, the subculture praises and vice versa.

• For example, society upholds regular school attendance and respect for property, whereas in the subculture, boys gain status from vandalising property and truanting.

alternative status alternative

• For Cohen, what is the subculture's function?

• Having failed in the where?, the boys create their own i____ o____ s____ in which they can win s____ from their p____ through their d____ actions.

alternative status alternative

• For Cohen, the subculture's function is that it offers the boys an alternative status hierarchy in which they can achieve.

• Having failed in the legitimate opportunity structure, the boys create their own illegitimate opportunity structure in which they can win status from their peers through their delinquent actions.

evaluation of Cohen’s status frustration theory

✓One strength of Cohen's theory is that it offers an explanation what?

• Unlike M____, whose concept of i_____ only accounts for what? Cohen's ideas of s____ f____, v____ i____ and a_____ s____ h____ help to explain n____-e___ d____ such as v___ and t___,

✗- However, like Merton, Cohen assumes what of working-class boys ?only to reject these when they fail. He ignores the possibility that they didn't share these g____ in the f____ p____ and so never saw themselves as f____.

evaluation of Cohen’s status frustration theory

✓One strength of Cohen's theory is that it offers an explanation of non-utilitarian deviance.

• Unlike Merton, whose concept of innovation only accounts for crime with a profit motive, Cohen's ideas of status frustration, value inversion and alternative status hierarchy help to explain non-economic delinquency such as vandalism and truancy,

✗- However, like Merton, Cohen assumes that working-class boys start off sharing middle-class success goals, only to reject these when they fail. He ignores the possibility that they didn't share these goals in the first place and so never saw themselves as failures.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

• Like Cohen, C____ and O___ (1960) take Merton's ideas as their s____ p____.

• They agree that working-class youths are denied what? and that their deviance stems from what?

• Cloward and Ohlin note that not everyone in this situation adapts to it by turning to 'innovation' - u____ crimes such as t____.

• Different subcultures respond in different ways to the lack of l____ o____. For example, the subculture described by Cohen resorts to v___ and v____, not e____ crime or i____ drug use.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

• Like Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin (1960) take Merton's ideas as their starting point.

• They agree that working-class youths are denied legitimate opportunities to achieve 'money success' , and that their deviance stems from the way they respond to this situation.

• Cloward and Ohlin note that not everyone in this situation adapts to it by turning to 'innovation' - utilitarian crimes such as theft.

• Different subcultures respond in different ways to the lack of legitimate opportunities. For example, the subculture described by Cohen resorts to violence and vandalism, not economic crime or illegal drug use.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

• Cloward and Ohlin attempt to explain what?

• Cloward and Ohlin argue that different types of deviant subcultures form because young people have unequal access not only to legitimate opportunities (like education and jobs) but also to illegitimate ones (like organised crime networks).

• For example, in some neighbourhoods there is an established professional criminal network, so young people may join a criminal subculture and learn organised theft — but in disorganised areas without such networks, they may instead form conflict subcultures, leading to gangs focused on violence rather than profit.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

• Cloward and Ohlin attempt to explain why different subcultural responses occur.

• Cloward and Ohlin argue that different types of deviant subcultures form because young people have unequal access to what 2 things?

• For example, in some neighbourhoods there is an e_____ p_____ criminal network, so young people may join a c____ s____ and learn organised theft — but in d____ areas without such n____, they may instead form c___ s____, leading to gangs focused on v___ rather than p___

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

The U____ of C___ s___ d____ was the first to be established in the United States and it remained extremely influential, notably in the study of crime and deviance :

The Chicago School argued that deviance is shaped by what?

• Some neighbourhoods develop what? that is p____ on over time; people in these areas often learn d____ ____ through c____ with others who teach criminal values and skills; and when communities face rapid change and high population turnover - what happens ?

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

The University of Chicago sociology department was the first to be established in the United States and it remained extremely influential, notably in the study of crime and deviance :

The Chicago School argued that deviance is shaped by neighbourhood environments.

• Some neighbourhoods develop a long-standing criminal culture that is passed on over time; people in these areas often learn deviant behaviour through contact with others who teach criminal values and skills; and when communities face rapid change and high population turnover, social bonds weaken, leading to social disorganisation and increased crime.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

• Drawing on the ideas of the Chicago School Cloward and Ohlin argue that different n____ provide different i____ o____ for young people to learn c____ skills and develop c___ c____.

They identify three types of deviant subcultures that result - what are they ?

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures

• Drawing on the ideas of the Chicago School Cloward and Ohlin argue that different neighbourhoods provide different illegitimate opportunities for young people to learn criminal skills and develop criminal careers.

They identify three types of deviant subcultures that result:

1. criminal subculture

2. conflict subculture

3. retreatist subculture

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures→ Criminal subcultures

• Criminal subcultures provide youths with an a____ for a career in u____ crime.

• They arise only in what type of neighbourhoods? and why?

• This allows the young to associate with a____ criminals, who can s____ those with the r____ a____ and an____ and provide them with t____ and r____ m____ as well as opportunities for employment where?

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures→ Criminal subcultures

• Criminal subcultures provide youths with an apprenticeship for a career in utilitarian crime.

• They arise only in neighbourhoods with a longstanding and stable criminal culture with an established hierarchy of professional adult crime. - this is because without long-standing criminal networks, crime tends to be disorganised, unstable, or individual, so young people can’t access the training or opportunities needed to form a criminal subculture

• This allows the young to associate with adult criminals, who can select those with the right aptitudes and abilities and provide them with training and role models as well as opportunities for employment on the criminal career ladder.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures→ Conflict subcultures

• Conflict subcultures arise in what neighbourhoods?

• This results in high levels of s____ d____ and prevents what from developing?

• its absence means that the only illegitimate opportunities available are where?

• In these, violence provides a r____ for y____ m____ f____ at their b____ o____, as well as an alternative source of s____ that they can earn by winning 't____ (t___) from rival gangs.

• This subculture is closest to that described by who?

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures→ Conflict subcultures

• Conflict subcultures arise in neighbourhoods of high population turnover.

• This results in high levels of social disorganisation and prevents a stable professional criminal network developing.

• its absence means that the only illegitimate opportunities available are within loosely organised gangs.

• In these, violence provides a release for young men's frustration at their blocked opportunities, as well as an alternative source of status that they can earn by winning 'turf' (territory) from rival gangs.

• This subculture is closest to that described by Cohen.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures→ retreatist subculture

• retreatist subculture forms from people who fail how?

• what does a legitimate opportunity structure refers to ?

• what does a illegitimate opportunity structure refers to ?

• Some individuals do not manage to access or succeed in either route — why not?

• These “d____ f____” often w___ from both worlds and instead turn to a r____ subculture, which according to Cloward and Ohlin, many turn to a retreatist subculture based on i____ d___ u__.

Cloward and Ohlin: three subcultures→ retreatist subculture

• retreatist subculture forms from people who fail to succeed in both the legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures.

• The legitimate opportunity structure refers to socially approved routes to success, such as education, qualifications, and employment.

• The illegitimate opportunity structure refers to organised, well-established criminal pathways, such as structured gangs or professional criminal networks that offer training, status, and income.

• Some individuals do not manage to access or succeed in either route — they cannot secure mainstream success, and they also lack the skills or opportunities to progress in criminal careers.

• These “double failures” often withdraw from both worlds and instead turn to a retreatist subculture, which according to Cloward and Ohlin, many turn to a retreatist subculture based on illegal drug use.

Evaluation of Cloward and - strengths

✓- Unlike Cohen, who focuses mainly on what? Cloward and Ohlin provide an explanation for the d____ types of working-class deviance in terms of d___ sfff.

✓- Strain theory has had a major influence what? In the 19___ Ohlin was appointed to do what?

Evaluation of Cloward and - strengths

✓- Unlike Cohen, who focuses mainly on one shared form of working-class delinquency caused by status frustration Cloward and Ohlin provide an explanation for the different types of working-class deviance in terms of different subcultures.

✓- Strain theory has had a major influence both on later theories of crime and on government policy. In the 1960s Ohlin was appointed to help develop crime policy in the USA under President Kennedy.

Evaluation of Cloward and - weaknesses

〤- They wrongly agree with M____ and C____ that most crime is w___-c___, thus ignoring what?

• the theory over-predicts what?

• Like Merton and Cohen, they too ignore the w____ p___ structure, including who m___ and e___ the law.

Evaluation of Cloward and - weaknesses

〤- They wrongly agree with Merton and Cohen that most crime is working-class, thus ignoring crimes of the wealthy.

• the theory over-predicts the amount of working-class crime.

• Like Merton and Cohen, they too ignore the wider power structure, including who makes and enforces the law.

Evaluation of Cloward and - weaknesses

〤-However, they draw the b____ bewtween each subculture too s____ and don’t recognise they can o____

• For example, S____ (20___) found that the drug trade is a mixture of what?

• Likewise, some supposedly r____' users are also p____ d____ making a l____ from this u___ crime

• In Cloward and Ohlin's theory, it would not be possible to for what?

Evaluation of Cloward and - weaknesses

〤-However, they draw the boundaries bewtween each subculture too sharply and don’t recognise they can overlap

• For example, South (2020) found that the drug trade is a mixture of both disorganised' crme, like the conflict subculture, and professional 'mafia' style criminal subcultures.

• Likewise, some supposedly retreatist' users are also professional dealers making a living from this utilitarian crime

• In Cloward and Ohlin's theory, it would not be possible to belong to more than one of these subcultures.

Evaluation of Cloward and - weaknesses

〤-Strain theories have been criticised as reactive theories -why?

• They have been criticised for assuming what?

• By contrast, ____. M____ (1962) argues that the lower class has its own what?

• This subculture does not value s____ in the first place, so its members are not f___ by f____.

• Although Miller agrees deviance is widespread in the lower class, he argues that this arises out from where ? and not where?

• M____ (1964) claims that most delinquents are not s___ c____ to their subculture, as strain theories suggest, but merely d___ in and out of d___.

〤-Strain theories have been criticised as reactive theories because they explain subcultures as forming in reaction to the failure to achieve mainstream goals

• They have been criticised for assuming that everyone starts off sharing the same mainstream success goal.

• By contrast, Walter B. Miller (1962) argues that the lower class has its own independent subculture separate from mainstream culture, with its own values.

• This subculture does not value success in the first place, so its members are not frustrated by failure.

• Although Miller agrees deviance is widespread in the lower class, he argues that this arises out of an attempt to achieve their own goals, not mainstream ones.

• Matza (1964) claims that most delinquents are not strongly committed to their subculture, as strain theories suggest, but merely drift in and out of delinquency.