(2025) AP Psychology U4 Unit 4: Social Psychology, Personality, Motivation, and Emotion

Prosocial behavior

Occurs when people act to benefit others rather than themselves.

Social influence theory

The idea that how people feel and act is affected by the others around them.

Attribution theory

The study within social cognition to explain how people determine the causes of what they observe.

Dispositional attribution

Attributing someone's behavior to their internal characteristics like personality or motives.

Situational attribution

Attributing behavior to external circumstances rather than internal traits.

Stable attribution

Belief that the cause of behavior is consistent and unlikely to change over time.

Unstable attribution

Belief that the cause of behavior is temporary and changeable.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Preconceived ideas about someone that affect our actions around them, impacting their behavior.

Fundamental attribution error

Overestimating the importance of dispositional factors when looking at the behavior of others.

Actor-observer bias

Tendency to attribute one's own behavior to the situation, but others' behavior to their character.

False-consensus effect

Tendency to overestimate the number of people who agree with you.

Self-serving bias

Tendency to take more credit for good outcomes rather than bad ones.

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that bad things happen only to bad people.

Attitude

A set of beliefs and feelings.

Mere exposure effect

The more one is exposed to something, the more one will come to like it.

Elaboration likelihood model

Explains different ways of processing stimuli and their effects on attitude change.

Central route

Involves deeply processing the content of the message.

Peripheral route

Involves processing the non-content aspects like the characteristics of the speaker.

Cognitive dissonance theory

States that people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors.

Foot-in-the-door technique

Getting someone to agree to a small request will increase the likelihood they'll agree to a larger request.

Door-in-the-face technique

After refusing a large request, individuals are more likely to agree to a follow-up smaller request.

Social reciprocity norm

The tendency of people to feel obliged to reciprocate when someone does something nice for them.

Social norms

Perceived informal rules that define acceptable actions within a group.

Stereotypes

Ideas about what members of different groups are like that influence interaction.

Prejudice

Undeserved negative attitude toward a group of people.

Implicit attitude

An attitude that may influence behavior without the individual being aware of it.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's culture is superior to others, which is a specific type of prejudice.

Instincts

Automatic behaviors performed in response to specific stimuli.

Drive reduction theory

Theory that our behavior is motivated by our biological needs.

Homeostasis

A balanced internal state.

Arousal theory

Theory that we seek an optimum level of arousal or excitement.

Boredom susceptibility

Aversion for repetitive experiences and extreme restlessness under constant conditions.

Optimal level of arousal

The level of mental stimulation at which physical performance and wellbeing are maximized.

Yerkes-Dodson law

The principle that high arousal can enhance performance on easy tasks but hinder it on difficult ones.

Incentives

Stimuli we're drawn to due to learning.

Self-determination theory

Theory suggesting self-determination is achieved when competence, connection, and autonomy needs are met.

Hypothalamus

Brain area that regulates body temperature, hunger, heart rate, and mood.

Ghrelin

Hormone that influences short-term hunger and communicates hunger cues to the brain.

Leptin

Hormone produced by fat cells that signals when the body is satiated.

Sexual orientation

A person's identity in relation to the gender or genders they are attracted to.

Twin studies

Research examining the roles of genetics and environment by comparing identical and fraternal twins.

Extrinsic motivations

Motivations driven by external factors like money, grades, or rewards.

Intrinsic motivations

Motivations driven by internal factors such as enjoyment or personal satisfaction.

Lewin's motivational conflicts theory

The study of conflicts that arise when making choices between different motivations.

Approach-approach conflict

Conflict arising when choosing between two desirable outcomes.

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that occurs when choosing between two unattractive outcomes.

Approach-avoidance conflict

Conflict when one goal has both attractive and unattractive aspects.

Facial feedback hypothesis

Theory that we infer our emotions from our facial expressions.

Cognitive appraisal

Mental interpretations that influence our emotional experiences.

Cognitive label

The act of identifying physical sensations and feelings as part of emotional experience.

Display rules

Socially learned standards that regulate emotional expression.

Psychodynamic theory

Focus on the psychological drives and forces within individuals that explain human behavior and personality.

Unconscious processes

Cognitive activities that occur without present awareness.

Preconscious

Thoughts, memories, and sensations not currently in awareness but can be recalled.

Conscious

The individual awareness of one's unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments.

Id

The part of the mind that follows the pleasure principle, existing from birth.

Ego

The part of the mind that follows the reality principle, emerging around 2 to 3 years.

Superego

The part of the mind that acts as a conscience, developing around age 5.

Defense mechanisms

Psychological strategies used by the ego to protect the conscious mind.

Repression

Blocking thoughts from conscious awareness.

Denial

Not accepting ego-threatening truths.

Displacement

Redirecting feelings toward another person or object, often when angry.

Projection

Attributing one's own feelings to someone else.

Reaction formation

Expressing the opposite of one's true feelings.

Regression

Returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior.

Rationalization

Justifying an undesirable occurrence with a beneficial result.

Intellectualization

Academic exploration of a topic.

Sublimation

Channeling frustration towards a constructive goal.

Projective tests

Ambiguous questioning aimed at exploring the unconscious.

Humanistic psychology

Belief in human goodness and free will in determining one's destiny.

Self-concept

A person's overall feeling about themselves, encompassing skills and strengths.

Self-esteem

An individual’s general perception or attitude about themselves.

Self-actualize

Motivation to reach one's full potential, according to Carl Rogers.

Unconditional positive regard

Complete support and acceptance of a person, regardless of actions.

Agreeableness

A personality trait prioritizing others' needs over one's own.

Openness to experience

Creativity and willingness to try new things.

Extroversion

A trait describing how outgoing or shy someone is.

Conscientiousness

Tendency to be hardworking, responsible, and organized.

Emotional stability

Consistency of one's mood or emotional state.

Reciprocal determinism

The interplay between behavior, personal factors, and the environment.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to successfully perform a task or achieve a goal.

Internal locus of control

Belief that one is responsible for their own outcomes.

External locus of control

Belief that luck or external forces dictate outcomes.

Explanatory style

The type of attributions made about events that happen to an individual.

Optimistic explanatory style

Positive attributions for good events and external attributions for bad events.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Negative attributions for bad events as internal and stable.

Personality inventories

Questionnaires assessing an individual's personal information and traits.

Multiculturalism

Recognition of the contributions of many different groups in society, enriching it as a result.

Individualistic cultures

Cultures that emphasize the importance of standing out and pursuing personal best.

Collectivist cultures

Cultures that value group well-being over individual beliefs and values.

Discrimination

Acting on one’s prejudice against a group.

Out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to see members of one’s own group as more diverse than those outside.

In-group bias

Preference for members of one's own group, stemming from the belief that they share similar qualities.

Superordinate goal

A goal that requires cooperation among hostile groups, reducing animosity when achieved.

Social facilitation

The phenomenon where the presence of others improves an individual's task performance.

Upward social comparison

Comparing oneself to individuals who are performing better.

Downward social comparison

Comparing oneself to individuals who are performing worse.

Relative deprivation theory

Theory suggesting that individuals feel less satisfied when frequently engaging in upward comparisons.

Conformity

The tendency to align behaviors or attitudes with those of others.

Normative social influence

Conforming to fit in with a group.