AP Psych Unit 1

Reflex

An automatic, involuntary response to a specific stimulus.

Delayed Conditioning

A classical conditioning process where the CS is presented before and overlaps with the UCS.

Trace Conditioning

A type of classical conditioning where the CS is presented and removed before the UCS is presented; there is a time gap between the two.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely.

Reinforcer

Any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Punisher

Any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Reinforcement

The process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable outcome.

Punishment

The process of decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by following it with an undesirable outcome.

Appetitive Stimulus

A pleasant or desirable stimulus that an organism will seek out.

Aversive Stimulus

An unpleasant stimulus that an organism will avoid or try to escape.

Primary Reinforcer

A reinforcer that is naturally rewarding, such as food, water, or warmth.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that becomes reinforcing through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money, praise).

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the full behavior is learned.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a varying number of responses, producing high and steady response rates.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given for the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given for the first response after varying amounts of time have passed.

Motivation

The internal drive or desire to engage in a specific behavior to achieve a goal.

Drive-reduction Theory

The idea that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs.

Incentive Theory

Suggests behavior is motivated by external rewards or stimuli.

Arousal Theory

Proposes that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal—not too high or too low.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point, after which it declines.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation that comes from external rewards (e.g., money, praise).

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by internal rewards and personal satisfaction.

Overjustification Effect

When external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation to perform a task.

Instinctual Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors, even after conditioning.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

Learning by watching and imitating the behavior of others.

Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by someone else.