sociology exam 1

systematic study

study in which researchers apply both theoretical perspectives and research methods to examinations of social behavior

society

a large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations

global interdependence

a relationship in which the lives of all people are closely intertwined and any one nation's problems are part of a larger global problem

commonsense knowledge

guides ordinary conduct in every-day life

myth

a popular but false notion that may be used, either intentionally or unintentionally, to perpetuate certain beliefs or "theories" even in the light of conclusive evidence to the contrary

sociological imagination

the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society

personal troubles

private problems that affect individuals and the networks of people with whom they regularly associate

public issues

problems that affect large numbers of people and often require solutions at the societal level

race

term used to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristics

ethnicity

The cultural heritage or identity of a group, based on factors such as language or country of origin

class

the relative location of a person or group within the larger society, based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

gender

social and cultural distinctions between masculine and feminine behaviors that is promoted and expected by society

social construction

the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists

industrialization

the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and hand-made products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries

urbanization

the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas

auguste comte

french philosopher that coined the term sociology; considered "the founder of sociology"

social statistics

forces for social order and stability

social dynamics

forces for conflict and change

positivism

a belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry

methodological, and social and political

two dimensions of comte's positivism

methodological

the application of scientific knowledge to physical and social phenomena

social and political

the use of such knowledge to predict the likely results of different policies so that the best one could be chosen

harriet martineau

british sociologist who translated and condensed comte's works and was considered to be the first female sociologist

herbert spencer

british social theorist who believed that societies develop through a process of "struggle" for existence and "fitness" for survival (evolutionary theory)

social darwinism

herbert spencer's belief that species best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas poorly adapted species die out

spencer's theory of general evolution

society, like a biological organism, has various interdependent parts (such as the family, the economy, and the government) that work to ensure the stability and survival of the entire society

emile durkheim

french sociologist who stressed that people are a product of their social environment and that behavior cannot be understood fully in terms of individual, biological, and physiological traits; believed that the limits of human potential are socially based, not biologically based

social facts

patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person

anomie

a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society

karl marx

german economist, historian, and social philosopher who concluded that capitalist systems are responsible for overwhelming poverty

class conflict

the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class

bourgeoisie

those who own the means of production (tools, land, factories, money, etc.)

protletariat

working class people who must sell their labor due to having no other options for earning money

alienation

a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself

max weber

german social scientist who sought to make sociological research without personal values or economic interests; employ verstehen

verstehen

understanding social behavior by putting yourself in the place of others

georg simmel

german sociologist who focused on how society is a web of patterned interactions among people

dyad

a social group with two members

triad

a social group with three members

formal sociology

an approach that focuses attention on the universal social forms that underlie social interaction

robert e. park

asserted that urbanization has a disintegrating influence on social life by producing an increase in crime, and racial and class antagonisms

george herbert mead

founder of the symbolic interaction perspective

double consciousness

the division of an individual's identity into two or more social realities

theory

a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and predict social events

perspective

an overall approach to or viewpoint on some subject

functionalist, conflict, symbolic interactionist, and postmodern

four major theoretical perspectives that have been predominant in the U.S.

functionalist perspectives

the sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system

societal consensus

majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioral expectations

talcott parsons

most influential contemporary advocate of the functionalist perspective that stressed that all societies must meet social needs to survive

instrumental tasks

the practical physical tasks necessary to maintain family life

expressive tasks

the emotional work necessary to support family members

robert k. merton

distinguished between manifest functions and latent functions

manifest functions

functions that are intended and recognized by members in the social unit

latent functions

unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants

dysfunctions

undesirable consequences of any element of society

companionship, tangible, appraisal, and esteem

types of social support

companionship support

social support that allows people feel as if they belong and fit in with others

tangible support

social support focused on practical or material needs

appraisal support

social support that involves help from another person that improves the individual's understanding of a situation and provides emotional validation

esteem support

social support that shows concern for another's well-being and affirms the qualities and skills that person has

conflict perspectives

groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources

power

the ability of a person within a social relationship to carry out their own will despite resistance from others

prestige

positive or negative social estimation of honor

c. wright mills

key figure in the development of conflict perspectives that coined the term sociological imagination

power elite

a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources

neo-marxist approach, racial-ethnic inequalities perspective, and the feminist perspective

branches of the conflict perspective

neo-marxist approach

views struggle between classes as inevitable and as a prime source of social change

racial-ethnic inequalities perspective

focuses on the continued exploitation of members of some racial-ethnic groups

feminist perspective

focuses on gender issues

feminist theoretical approach

directs attention to women's experiences and the importance of gender as an element of social structure

patriarchy

a form of social organization in which males dominate females and things that are "masculine" are more highly valued than things that are "feminine"

macrolevel analysis

examines whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems instead of looking at important social dynamics in individuals' lives.

symbolic interactionist perspectives

the sociological approach that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups

microlevel analysis

an approach that focuses on small groups rather than large-scale social structures

functionalist and conflict perspectives

perspectives that focus on macrolevel analysis

symbolic interactionist perspective

perspective that focuses on microlevel analysis

herbert blumer

credited with coining the term symbolic interactionism

interaction

immediate reciprocally oriented communication between two or more people

symbol

anything that meaningfully represents something else

symbolic interaction

interaction between people that takes place through the use of symbols

subjective reality

attachment of meanings to our reality

postmodern perspectives

perspective that believes that existing theories have been unsuccessful in explaining social life in contemporary societies that are characterized by post-industrialization, consumerism, and global communications

research

the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one

quantitative research

sociological research methods based on the goal of scientific objectivity and that focus on data that can be measured numerically

qualitative research

sociological research methods that use interpretive descriptions (words) rather than statistics (numbers) to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships"

hypothesis

a statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables

variable

any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to another

independent variable

presumed to be the cause of the relationship between variables, is manipulated during an experiment

dependent variable

assumed to be caused by the independent variable

sample

a small number of people who are chosen to represent the whole in a survey

representative sample

a selection from a larger population that has the essential characteristics of the total population

validity

the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure

reliability

the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time

analysis

the process through which data is organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn

research methods

specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research

survey

a poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationships among facts

questionnaire

A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent

secondary analysis

the analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers

content analysis

the systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life