Neuroscience and Endocrine System: Key Concepts and Disorders

Neural networks

Interconnected groups of neurons that work together to process information.

Central nervous system vs. peripheral nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all the nerves outside the CNS.

Somatic vs. autonomic nervous system

The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, while the autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions.

Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic

The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses, while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes 'rest and digest' activities.

Neuron types

Sensory (afferent) neurons carry signals to the CNS, motor (efferent) neurons transmit signals from the CNS to muscles, and interneurons connect neurons within the CNS.

Reflex arc

A neural pathway that controls a reflex action, involving sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.

Parts of a neuron

A neuron consists of the cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath of axons that facilitate rapid conduction of nerve impulses.

Glial cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system, including Schwann cells that produce myelin in the PNS.

Resting potential vs action potential

Resting potential is the electrical charge of a neuron at rest, while action potential is a rapid change in charge that occurs when a neuron fires.

Ion pumps - sodium and potassium

Proteins that move sodium and potassium ions across the neuron membrane to maintain resting potential and generate action potentials.

Polarized vs. depolarized

A polarized neuron has a negative charge inside, while a depolarized neuron has a positive charge due to ion movement.

All or none response

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or not at all, with no partial firing.

Refractory period

The time after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again.

Neurotransmitters - lock and key system

Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, similar to a key fitting into a lock.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal.

Role of dopamine

Dopamine is involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.

Role of serotonin

Serotonin regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.

Role of norepinephrine

Norepinephrine is involved in arousal and alertness.

Role of acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is important for muscle movement and memory.

Role of endorphins

Endorphins are natural pain relievers and mood enhancers.

Role of glutamate

Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Role of substance P

Substance P is involved in the transmission of pain signals.

Agonists vs. antagonists

Agonists enhance neurotransmitter action, while antagonists block it.

Parkinson's disease

A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor symptoms due to dopamine deficiency.

Multiple sclerosis

An autoimmune disease that affects the myelin sheath of neurons in the CNS.

Guillain-Barre syndrome

A condition where the immune system attacks the peripheral nervous system, leading to muscle weakness.

Myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disorder that disrupts communication between nerves and muscles, causing weakness.

Endocrine system

A system of glands that secrete hormones to regulate various bodily functions.

Role of pituitary gland

The pituitary gland is known as the 'master gland' because it regulates other endocrine glands.

Role of adrenal glands

Adrenal glands produce stress hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter perception, mood, or consciousness.

Substance use disorder

A condition characterized by an inability to control the use of a substance despite negative consequences.

Tolerance

A state where increasing amounts of a substance are needed to achieve the same effect.

Dependence

A condition where a person experiences withdrawal symptoms when not using a substance.

Withdrawal

Symptoms that occur when a person stops using a substance they are dependent on.

Depressant

A class of drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions, including barbiturates, alcohol, and opioids.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and speed up body functions, such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine.

MDMA

A psychoactive drug known as ecstasy that has stimulant and hallucinogenic effects.

Hallucinogens

Substances that cause perceptual distortions, such as LSD and marijuana (THC).

Near-death experience

A personal experience associated with impending death, often described as an altered state of consciousness.

Neurotransmitters most affected by drugs

Drugs primarily affect serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain.

Biological, psychological, and social influences on addiction

Addiction is influenced by genetic predisposition, mental health, and environmental factors.

Health psychology

A field that studies how psychological factors influence health and illness.

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of the interaction between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system.

Stress vs. stressors

Stress is the body's response to challenges, while stressors are the events or conditions that trigger stress.

Approach and avoidance motives

Approach motives drive individuals toward positive outcomes, while avoidance motives drive them away from negative outcomes.

Two stress response systems

The two systems are the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

Epinephrine

A hormone also known as adrenaline that is released during stress and increases heart rate and energy.

Cortisol

A hormone released in response to stress that helps regulate metabolism and immune response.

Fight or flight response

The body's automatic response to perceived danger, preparing it to either confront or flee from the threat.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

A three-stage response to stress: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.

Tend and befriend

A stress response more common in women, characterized by nurturing and seeking social support.

Susceptibility to disease

The likelihood of developing health problems due to stress and other factors.

Coronary heart disease

A condition caused by the buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries, often linked to stress and lifestyle factors.

Psychophysiological illnesses

Physical illnesses that are influenced by psychological factors, such as stress.

Type A personality

A personality type characterized by competitiveness, urgency, and hostility, often linked to higher stress levels.

Type B personality

A personality type characterized by a more relaxed and easy-going nature, often linked to lower stress levels.

Catharsis

The process of releasing and thereby providing relief from strong or repressed emotions.

Coping

Strategies used to manage stress and difficult emotions.

Problem-focused coping

Coping strategies aimed at addressing the source of stress directly.

Emotion-focused coping

Coping strategies aimed at managing emotional responses to stress.

Personal control

The belief in one's ability to influence events and outcomes in their life.

Learned helplessness

A condition in which a person feels unable to control or change a situation, often leading to passive behavior.

External locus of control

The belief that outcomes are determined by external factors, not by one's own actions.

Internal locus of control

The belief that one can control their own life and outcomes through their actions.

Self-control

The ability to regulate one's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in the face of temptations.

Optimism vs. pessimism

Optimism is the tendency to expect positive outcomes, while pessimism is the tendency to expect negative outcomes.

Social support

The perception and reality of being cared for and supported by others.

Eustress vs. distress

Eustress is positive stress that can motivate, while distress is negative stress that can be harmful.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events occurring in childhood that can have long-term effects on health and well-being.