Unit 5: Social Psychology and Personality

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, examining the influence of social interactions, group dynamics, and cultural factors.

Attribution

The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events, attributing them to internal dispositions or external situations.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior based on external factors or circumstances rather than internal traits.

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior as a result of internal qualities, such as personality traits or character.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors while attributing the actions of others to dispositional factors.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors, protecting self-esteem.

Person Perception

The process through which we form impressions of others, based on characteristics such as physical appearance, behavior, and verbal communication.

Mere Exposure Effect

The psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for stimuli merely because they are familiar with them through repeated exposure.

Just World-Phenomenon

The cognitive bias that assumes people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, often leading to victim-blaming.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

The phenomenon where an individual's expectations about another person or situation lead to the realization of those expectations, often creating a cycle of affirmation.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, often disregarding contradictory evidence.

Social Comparison

The process of evaluating oneself in relation to others to gain insights about personal abilities, opinions, and social standings.

Personal Sense of Control

The belief that one can influence their own life outcomes and that their actions significantly impact their environment and circumstances.

External Locus of Control

The perception that external forces or chance determine life events, rather than personal actions.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that individuals can control their life events and outcomes through their own efforts and decisions.

Explanatory Style

A psychological attribute that reflects how individuals explain the causes of events, either as internal or external, stable or unstable, and global or specific.

Optimism

A hopeful and positive outlook on future events, believing that good things will happen and challenges can be overcome.

Pessimism

A negative outlook on future events, believing that bad things will happen and challenges are insurmountable.

Stereotypes

Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a group of people, often based on characteristics such as race, gender, or age.

Explicit Attitude

A consciously held belief or evaluation about an object, person, or group that can be easily reported or communicated.

Implicit Attitude

An unconscious belief or evaluation about an object, person, or group that influences behavior without being directly reported.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to maintain a belief even in the face of evidence that contradicts it, often leading to a resistance to change one's viewpoint.

Cognitive Dissonance

A psychological discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, prompting a motivation to reduce the inconsistency.

We justify cognitive dissonance by…

changing our beliefs, acquiring new information, or minimizing the importance of the conflict.

Social Norms

the unwritten rules and expectations that guide behavior in social contexts, influencing how individuals behave in groups.

Social Influence

the impact of others on an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, often resulting in conformity, compliance, or obedience.

Persuasion

the process by which a person's attitudes or behaviors are influenced by communication from others.

Central Route of Persuasion

a method of persuasion that involves thoughtful consideration of the arguments presented, leading to lasting attitude change. This route relies on logical reasoning and strong evidence rather than emotional appeal.

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

a method of persuasion that relies on superficial cues, such as the attractiveness of the speaker or emotional appeals, rather than the actual content of the message. This route often results in temporary attitude change.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory that explains how persuasive messages can lead to attitude change through two routes: the central route and the peripheral route, depending on the individual's motivation and ability to process information.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

A persuasive technique where getting a person to agree to a small request increases the chances of them agreeing to a larger request later.

Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon

A persuasive strategy that involves making a large request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request, which is likely to be accepted.

Conformity

The tendency to align behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs with those of a group or social norm, often due to real or imagined pressure from others.

Normative Social Influence

The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them. This type of social influence is driven by the desire for social approval.

Informational Social Influence

The influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality, often occurring in ambiguous situations where people look to others for guidance.

Stanford Prison Experiment

A psychological study conducted in 1971 by Philip Zimbardo that investigated the psychological effects of perceived power by assigning participants to the roles of guards and prisoners in a simulated prison environment.

Power of the Situation

The concept that situational factors can heavily influence an individual's behavior and decisions, often overriding personal traits and characteristics.

Obedience

The act of following direct commands or orders from an authority figure, often leading individuals to act contrary to their personal beliefs or morals.

Shedding of Responsibility

The phenomenon where individuals feel less accountable for their actions when in a group setting, often leading to reduced personal responsibility. This often results in bystander apathy or collective behavior, where individuals believe others will take action.

Deindividuation

A psychological state where individuals in a group lose self-awareness and feel less accountable for their actions, often leading to behaviors not typically exhibited when alone.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel less personal accountability when part of a group, resulting in a reduced likelihood of taking action in emergencies.

Group Influence

The effect that a group has on individual behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, often leading individuals to conform to group norms and expectations.

Collectivism

A cultural value that emphasizes the importance of the group over the individual, prioritizing communal goals and social cohesion.

Individualism

A cultural value that prioritizes the autonomy and rights of the individual over the group's needs, emphasizing personal achievement and self-reliance.

Multiculturalism

A cultural perspective that recognizes, values, and promotes the diversity of different cultures within a society, encouraging the coexistence of multiple cultural identities.

Group Polarization

The phenomenon in which group discussions lead members to adopt more extreme positions on issues than they initially held, often enhancing shared beliefs. This occurs as group members reinforce each other's views, leading to a stronger consensus and potential risk-taking behavior.

Groupthink

A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group when the desire for harmony or conformity leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes. Members suppress dissenting viewpoints, resulting in a lack of critical evaluation and the prioritization of group consensus.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for individuals to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others, while performance may decrease on complex tasks. This effect is influenced by the increased arousal and motivation from being observed.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone, often because they feel less accountable for the outcome.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs, opinions, and behaviors. This can lead to a biased perception of social norms and one's own behavior.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation among individuals or groups, promoting collaboration and reducing intergroup conflict.

Social Traps

A situation in which individuals or groups are drawn into mutually destructive behavior, prioritizing short-term rewards over long-term benefits.

The Prisoner’s Dilemma

A situation in which two individuals may not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interest, due to the fear of being betrayed.

Altruism

The selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behavior without expecting anything in return.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will respond to each other's positive actions with similar kindness, fostering mutual cooperation and support.

The Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present, often due to diffusion of responsibility.

Personality

The individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that define a person's unique social and emotional responses.

The Psychodynamic Theory of Personality

A theory that emphasizes the influence of unconscious motives and childhood experiences on personality development, proposing that behavior is driven by inner conflicts. This theory was developed by Sigmund Freud and includes concepts like the id, ego, and superego, which interact to shape an individual's personality.

Id

The primal component of personality in psychodynamic theory, representing innate biological drives and desires, operating on the pleasure principle.

Super Ego

An aspect of the mind in psychodynamic theory that serves as the moral compass, guiding behavior based on societal rules and ideals, often opposing the desires of the id.

Ego

The rational component of personality in psychodynamic theory, balancing the demands of the id, the constraints of the superego, and reality, operating on the reality principle.

Defense Mechanism

Cognitive strategies used by the ego to protect against anxiety and internal conflict by distorting reality.

Projective Test

A psychological assessment tool that uses ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses that reveal an individual's inner thoughts and feelings, often used to explore personality and emotional functioning.

Thematic Appreciation Test

A projective psychological test that involves showing individuals a series of images and asking them to create stories about them, revealing their underlying motivations, concerns, and emotions.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective psychological test consisting of 10 inkblots printed on cards, designed to reflect the individual's unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Humanist Theory of Personality

A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of individuals, focusing on their subjective experiences and potential for change.

Self-Actualization

The process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential and capabilities, considered the highest level of psychological development in humanist psychology.

Unconditional Positive Regard

A concept in humanistic psychology, proposed by Carl Rogers, that refers to accepting and supporting a person regardless of what they say or do, fostering an environment conducive to self-growth.

Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experiences, and cognitive processes in shaping personality, focusing on how individuals interact with their environment.

Reciprocal Determinism

A concept in social-cognitive theory by Albert Bandura, stating that a person's behavior is influenced by personal factors, environment, and the behavior itself, creating a continuous loop of interaction.

Self-Concept

The perception and understanding one has of themselves, encompassing beliefs about one's attributes, personality, and capabilities.

Self-Esteem

The evaluation and emotional response one has towards their own self-worth, influencing confidence and overall well-being.

Self-Efficacy

The belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task, influencing motivation and performance in various activities.

Personality Traits

Characteristics that describe consistent patterns in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors across different situations.

Big Five Theory

A psychological model that identifies five core dimensions of personality: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to identify underlying relationships between variables and reduce data dimensionality by grouping correlated traits into factors. Dimension 1: Extraversion vs. Introversion Dimension 2: Emotional Stability vs. Emotional Instability

Myers-Briggs Test

A personality assessment tool that categorizes individuals into 16 different personality types based on their preferences across four dichotomies: introversion/extroversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving.

Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A standardized psychometric test designed to assess a person's personality characteristics and psychopathology through a series of true/false statements. The MMPI is widely used in mental health settings to diagnose psychological disorders and inform treatment planning.

Motivation Theory

A concept that explains the processes that initiate, guide, and maintain goal-oriented behaviors, often addressing the reasons behind individuals' actions and choices.

Drive-Reduction Theory

A theory proposing that physiological needs create an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need, thereby reducing the drive and restoring balance.

Incentive Theory

A theory suggesting that behavior is motivated by external rewards or incentives, emphasizing the role of environmental factors in driving actions.

Arousal Theory

A theory that proposes that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, seeking stimulation or relief from excess arousal.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The principle stating that performance increases with arousal to an optimal point but decreases with too much arousal. It suggests a relationship between arousal level and performance efficiency.

Self-Determination Theory

A theory suggesting that people are motivated to grow and change by fulfilling innate psychological needs, primarily competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards such as money, fame, or other forms of recognition, rather than internal satisfaction.

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation that comes from within an individual, driven by personal satisfaction or the inherent enjoyment of an activity, rather than external rewards.

Instinct Theory

A psychological perspective that posits behavior is driven by innate biological instincts, motivating actions without the need for external stimuli.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

A theory that explains how individuals experience conflict when faced with multiple competing motives, categorizing them into approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance conflicts.

Approach-Approach Conflict

A psychological situation in which an individual faces a choice between two equally attractive options, leading to conflict in decision-making.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

A psychological situation where an individual must choose between two undesirable alternatives, often leading to stress and anxiety over the decision.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

A psychological situation in which an individual faces a choice that has both positive and negative aspects, creating conflict in the decision-making process.

Sensation Seeking Theory

The hypothesis that individuals differ in their need for varied and intense experiences, influencing their behaviors and risk-taking tendencies.

Hunger Motivation

The drive that compels individuals to seek food in response to physiological needs and emotional influences, affecting behavior and decision-making.

Lateral Hypothalamus

A brain region involved in regulating hunger and feeding behaviors, stimulating the desire to eat when activated.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

A brain region that inhibits hunger and regulates satiety, signaling to stop eating when activated.

Ghrelin

A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite and promotes food intake by sending hunger signals to the brain.

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger, thus promoting weight loss.

Set Point

The body's natural weight range that it attempts to maintain through various mechanisms, which can include hunger signals and metabolism adjustments.

Psychological Factors of Hunger

The psychological influences that affect hunger and eating behavior, including emotions, stress, and environmental cues.