Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy

Limited Government

Definition: A system where governmental powers are restricted by law, often through a constitution

Context: Established to prevent tyranny, as seen in the U.S. Constitution's checks on power after the Revolutionary War

Natural Rights

Definition: Rights inherent to all people, such as life, liberty, and property

Context: Enlightenment thinker John Locke influenced the Declaration of Independence's justification for breaking from Britain

Social Contract

Definition: The theory that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed in exchange for protection of rights

Context: Inspired colonial leaders to argue Britain broke this contract, justifying independence

Popular Sovereignty

Definition: Principle that the authority of a government is created and sustained by its people

Context: Core idea in the Declaration of Independence and later in debates like slavery in new territories

Declaration of Independence

Definition: 1776 document declaring the colonies' independence from Britain

Context: Written to justify separation using Enlightenment principles and grievances against King George III

Articles of Confederation

Definition: The first U.S. constitution that created a weak central government

Context: Designed to protect states' independence after British tyranny, but failed to address national needs

Constitutional Preamble

Definition: Introductory statement to the U.S. Constitution outlining its purposes

Context: Written to clearly state the goals of the new federal government after the Articles failed

U.S. Constitution

Definition: The supreme law of the United States, establishing the structure of government

Context: Created in 1787 to replace the ineffective Articles of Confederation

Federalist No. 10

Definition: Essay by James Madison arguing a large republic controls factions

Context: Written to convince states to ratify the Constitution by addressing fear of majority tyranny

Brutus No. 1

Definition: Anti-Federalist paper warning that a strong central government threatens liberty

Context: Used to argue against ratification of the Constitution without a Bill of Rights

Federalists

Definition: Supporters of the U.S. Constitution and a strong central government

Context: Led by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay during ratification debates

Anti-Federalists

Definition: Opponents of the Constitution fearing centralized power

Context: Their pressure led to the addition of the Bill of Rights

Central Government

Definition: The national level of government with authority over the whole country

Context: Strengthened in the Constitution after the Articles' weak federal power

Republic

Definition: A government where citizens elect representatives

Context: Chosen by the Framers to balance popular rule with stability

Shay's Rebellion

Definition: 1786-87 uprising of Massachusetts farmers against debt and taxes

Context: Exposed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation

The Federalist Papers

Definition: Essays defending and explaining the Constitution

Context: Written to win public support for ratification in New York

Virginia Plan

Definition: Proposal for representation in Congress based on population

Context: Favored large states at the Constitutional Convention

New Jersey Plan

Definition: Proposal for equal representation of states in Congress

Context: Favored small states at the Constitutional Convention

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

Definition: Agreement creating a bicameral Congress with one chamber by population and one with equal representation

Context: Solved the dispute between large and small states in 1787

Three-Fifths Compromise

Definition: Agreement counting enslaved persons as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxes

Context: Resolved conflict between Northern and Southern states

Slave Trade Compromise

Definition: Allowed the importation of enslaved people until 1808

Context: Concession to Southern states to secure the Constitution's ratification

Ex Post Facto Law

Definition: Law that punishes actions retroactively

Context: Banned in the Constitution to protect individual rights

Bill of Attainder

Definition: Legislative act declaring a person guilty without a trial

Context: Prohibited in the Constitution to protect due process

Electoral College

Definition: System for electing the U.S. president via state-appointed electors

Context: Created as a compromise between direct election and congressional selection

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Definition: Requires states to recognize other states' laws and records

Context: Promotes unity in a federal system

Amendment Process

Definition: Procedure for changing the Constitution

Context: Made difficult to ensure stability yet allow adaptation

Supremacy Clause

Definition: Establishes federal law as the highest law of the land

Context: Ensures national authority over conflicting state laws

Ratification

Definition: Formal approval of a legal document

Context: Required 9 of 13 states to approve the Constitution

Checks and Balances

Definition: Each branch's ability to limit the others' power

Context: Designed to prevent abuse of power

Separation of Powers

Definition: Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches

Context: Inspired by Montesquieu to avoid tyranny

Federalist No. 51

Definition: Madison's essay explaining checks and balances and separation of powers

Context: Written to support ratification of the Constitution

Impeachment

Definition: Process to remove officials for misconduct

Context: Framers' safeguard against executive abuse

Commerce Clause

Definition: Gives Congress power to regulate interstate commerce

Context: Expanded federal power, especially after Gibbons v. Ogden

Enumerated/Delegated/Expressed/Formal Powers

Definition: Powers explicitly granted to the federal government by the Constitution

Context: Examples include declaring war and regulating trade

Implied Powers

Definition: Powers not stated but necessary to carry out enumerated powers

Context: Established in McCulloch v. Maryland

Concurrent (Shared) Powers

Definition: Powers held by both federal and state governments

Context: Includes taxing and making laws

Reserved Powers

Definition: Powers kept by the states under the 10th Amendment

Context: Protects state authority in a federal system

Necessary and Proper Clause

Definition: Gives Congress power to pass laws needed to carry out its duties

Context: Basis for implied powers

Devolution

Definition: Transfer of power from federal to state governments

Context: Increased in the 1990s under conservative leadership

Dual ("Layer Cake") Federalism

Definition: Clear division of powers between federal and state governments

Context: Dominant from founding until the New Deal

Cooperative ("Marble Cake") Federalism

Definition: Federal and state governments share responsibilities

Context: Expanded under FDR's New Deal

Fiscal Federalism

Definition: Use of federal funds to influence state policies

Context: Seen in grants and aid programs

Grants

Definition: Federal funds given to states for specific purposes

Context: Tool of fiscal federalism

Categorical Grants

Definition: Funds for narrowly defined purposes with conditions

Context: Gives federal government more control over states

Block Grants

Definition: Funds for broad purposes with fewer restrictions

Context: Favored by states for flexibility

Revenue-Sharing

Definition: Federal distribution of funds to states with no strings attached

Context: Popular in the 1970s but later phased out

Mandates

Definition: Federal orders requiring states to comply with certain rules

Context: Examples include the Americans with Disabilities Act

Americans with Disabilities Act

Definition: 1990 law banning discrimination against disabled individuals

Context: An example of an unfunded federal mandate

10th Amendment

Definition: Reserves powers not given to the federal government for the states

Context: Reinforces federalism principles

Participatory Democracy

Definition: Model emphasizing broad citizen involvement in politics

Context: Seen in initiatives, referendums, and town meetings

Pluralist Democracy

Definition: Model where multiple groups compete for political influence

Context: Prevents domination by one faction

Elite Democracy

Definition: Model where a small number of wealthy, educated individuals influence decisions

Context: Critics argue it limits true popular control

Hyperpluralism Theory

Definition: Belief that too many competing groups weaken government's ability to act

Context: Used to explain gridlock in policymaking

Advantages of Federalism

Definition: Benefits like local control and policy innovation

Context: Encourages diversity in policy approaches

Disadvantages of Federalism

Definition: Drawbacks like inequality between states and policy confusion

Context: Seen in varied education or healthcare standards

Unitary System

Definition: Power centralized in the national government

Context: Used by countries like France and the UK

Confederate System

Definition: Power held by states with a weak central authority

Context: Structure of U.S. government under the Articles of Confederation

Federal System

Definition: Power shared between national and state governments

Context: Chosen in the Constitution to balance unity and local control