AP Psychology - Motivation and Levels of Consciousness Test Review

Needs

A substance, state, or anything needed for survival, well-being, or personal fulfillment

Drives

Generalized state of readiness precipitating or motivating an activity or course of action

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry (e.g., blood glucose) around a particular level

Unit Bias

Tendency to think that a single unit of good (a bottle, a can, a plateful, or some more subtle measure) is the right amount to eat or drink

Bulimia Nervosa

Eating disorder involving recurrent episodes of binge eating following inappropriate compensatory behaviors (self-induced vomiting, fasting, excessive exercise)

Binge Eating

Consuming abnormally large quantities of food with a loss of control

Social Facilitation

Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Metabolic Rate

The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure

Set Points

Point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lower metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Insulin

Naturally made in the body and helps the body absorb the glucose. (Not produced in diabetics); secreted by the pancreas

Orexin

Neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite; secreted by hypothalamus

Leptin

Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

PYY

Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain

Ghrelin

Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain

Incentives

Positive or negative environment stimulus that motivates behavior

Instincts (Fixed pattern)

A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

Ostracism

Exclusion by general consent from common privileges or social acceptance

Facial Expressions

Nonverbal signaling using the movement of facial muscles; integral part of communication and expressing emotions

Type A

Competitive, self-critical, easily “wound up,” overreacts, hypertension; constant struggle against the clock; easily aroused to anger/hostility

Testosterone

Promotes the growth of male sex organs and other male-specific features. It's also responsible for the male-specific changes that occur during puberty such as deepening in the voice and increased facial hair although women possess this is much less quantities

Conscious Attention

“Reportable” form of attention that is part of conscious awareness

• When we are attending to a particular object/thought/event that we are experiencing, and we can report that we are attending to it, we are exhibiting our use of conscious attention

James-Lange Theory (Peripheral Theory)

We feel emotion because we are aware of our physiological responses to stimuli (Stimuli → Physical → Emotion)

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus simultaneously triggers both physiological responses and the experience of emotion (Stimulus → Physical/Emotion)

Schachter-Singer Theory (Two Factor Theory)

To experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal (Stimulus → Physical → Mental → Emotion)

Robert Zajonc

Believed we have reactions that are separate or occur before we interpret the situation (Stimuli → Emotion → Mental)

Meyer Friedman

Devised Type A and Type B personality theory; claimed that Type A were more likely to get heart disease because of their high stress lifestyle than Type B

Hans Selye

Identified “stress” as the reason for certain symptoms and illnesses and created the theory of general adaptation syndrome (three stages of stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion) and the idea of stressors

Catharsis Hypothesis

Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release, catharsis

• Catharsis (emotional release); this emotional release is linked to a need to relieve unconscious conflicts

• EX: Experiencing stress over a work-related situation may cause feelings of frustration and tension

Yerkes Dodson Law

Suggests a relationship between performance and arousal; increased arousal can help improve performance, but only up to a certain point; when arousal becomes excessive, performance diminishes

Polygraph Tests

Test to measure and record several physiological indicators of stress (such as heart rate, blood pressure, etc.)

• “Lie detector”

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

From the bottom:

• Physiological (Breathing, food, water, sex, etc.)

• Safety (Security of body, of employment, or family, of health)

• Love/Belonging (Friendship, family, sexual intimacy)

• Esteem (Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others/by others)

• Self-Actualization (Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts)

Autonomic Nervous System

Fight or Flight

• Sympathetic Nervous System - arousing body to run or fight

• Parasympathetic Nervous System - calming and body returns to normal

Adaptation Level

Theoretical baseline which forms a standard against which new stimuli are evaluated

• Tendency to form judgements relative to a “neutral” level

Relative Deprivation Principle

Perception that one is worse off than those they compare themselves to

• Belief that a person will feel deprive or entitled to something based on the comparison to someone else

Stressors

Things that push our buttons (catastrophes, life changes, daily hassles)

Killer cells

Pursue diseased cells (those infected by viruses or cancer); lymphocytes

• B Lymphocytes - form in bone marrow; release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

• T Lymphocytes - form in the thymus; attack cancer cells, viruses, etc.

Telomeres

Structure found at the ends of chromosomes that protects fragments from rejoining after a chromosome has divided

Adrenal Glands

Secretes hormones that control emotional reactions and basic life processes such as metabolism, blood pressure, and sexual development

• Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (arouses body during stress)

Prefrontal Cortex

Functions in attention, planning, working memory, and the expression of emotions and appropriate social behaviors

Amygdala

Serves a role in memory, emotion, perception of threat, and fear learning

Thalamus

Receives sensory information from the nervous system and passes the information to the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain; relays information

Hypothalamus

Primary control over involuntary functions of the body; integrates autonomic activity into appropriate responses to internal/external stimuli; involved in appetite, thirst, sleep, and sexuality

Lymphocytes

White blood cells that travel in the blood stream and defend the body from abnormal cells, disease-causing bacteria and viruses

Drive-Reduction Theory

Idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

• Need (For water) → Drive (thirst) → Drive-reducing behavior (drinking)

Arousal Theory

The physical environment can affect arousal levels through stimulation and stress created when psychological/physical needs are not met

• Optimum Level of Arousal - when arousal levels get to a certain point, we function really well, but above/below that point, we do not

• Optimum Arousal Theory - we all want to be at the optimal level of arousal, so we are motivated to change our behavior in order to achieve it

  • Scared during a movie → over the level → hide our eyes

Instinct Theory

State people perform certain behaviors due to instincts developed through generations of evolution

Evolutionary Theory

Evolution is the process in which significant changes in the inheritable traits of a species occur over time

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye’s concept of body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion

• Can’t stay in alarm phase forever

Circadian Rhythm

Biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (e.g., of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Hypnosis and Brain Waves

A social interaction in which a subject responds to another person’s suggestions that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Manifest Contest of Dreams

All the parts of the dream that we remember (the actual content) such as the actual story lines of the dreams

Latent Content of Dreams

The underlying, more hidden, but true meaning of a dream

Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale

Standardized 12-item scale used to measure hypnotic susceptibility by means of the participant’s responses to various suggest actions (e.g., fall forward, close the eyes, or lower an outstretched arm)

• Ernest R. Hilgard

Paradoxical Sleep (REM Sleep)

Rapid eye movement sleep; recurring sleep state during which vivid dreams commonly occur

Social Influence Theory

Individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others

Post Hypnotic Suggestion

Suggestion made to a person during hypnosis that they act out after the hypnotic trance

Age Regression

Acting younger than you are, whether that is only a few years younger than your current age or returning to a child-like state

• Can help handle stress and deal with the pressures of everyday life

Alpha Waves

Slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state (e.g., watching TV or listening to music)

• 8 - 12 cycles per second

Beta Waves

“Fast” waves that most of us use during waking hours

• It can be seen when we are completing tasks such as solving math problems, puzzles, or reading a book

• Left side of the brain produces more

• 13 - 30 cycles per second

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks

• May lapse directly into REM sleep, often at unfortunate times

Sleep Apnea

Sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Hypnogogic Sensation

The drowsy state that occurs in the transition from wakefulness to sleep

• The experience of the transitional state from wakefulness to sleep

• Sensations include: strange noises, lights, hallucinations, sleep paralysis, and lucid dreaming

Night Terrors

Sleep disturbances in which a child may suddenly bolt upright in bed, cry, scream, moan, mumble, and thrash about with her eyes wide open, but without being truly awake. They are unaware of your presence and isn’t likely to respond to anything you say or do.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying sleep

Aphasia

Acquired language impairment that results from brain damage; causes problems with speaking, listening, reading, and writingg

Dissociation

A split in the mind in which there can be two independent streams of consciousness occurring at the same time, allowing some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Parallel Processing

Capacity for the human brain to carry on different cognitive functions at the same time

Acetylcholine

Plays an important role in memory formation and learning

NREM1

First stage of sleep (lasts only a few minutes); experience N1 as you are just drifting off to sleep

• Experience random twitches (hypnic jerks)

NREM2

Second state of sleep; total loss of consciousness; cease to be aware of any of your surroundings as you fall into a deep, restorative sleep

• Sleep spindles may be present (rapid up and down waves)

NREM3

Deepest sleep; difficult to wake someone in N3 (delta waves); parasomnias (sleepwalking and night terrors) typically occur in this stage

• Likely to experience another period of N2 before moving on to REM

REM

Dream phase; rapid eye movement sleep; GABA has been released that disables the motor neurons causing sleep paralysis

Sleep Deprivation

Condition of getting insufficient sleep; occur as a result of illness, shift work, or lifestyle considerations (newborn, staying up to study)

REM Rebound

Lengthening and increasing frequency and depth of REM sleep

• Often follows sleep deprivation

Tolerance

Your body is getting used to the drug causing a reduction in its effectiveness

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter that has an important role in motor behavior; a chemical messenger in the brain that helps regulate movement, motivation, reward, and pleasure

Endorphins

“Happiness hormones" / peptides that block the perception of pain and increase feelings of wellbeing / related to pleasurable emotional responses / stored in the pituitary gland

Epinephrine

Adrenaline; relaxes smooth muscle; produced by adrenal glands; plays a part in the sympathetic nervous system; involved in breathing, muscle contractions, and fight or flight

Carcinogenic

Any substance or factor that can cause or help develop cancer

• Damage healthy processes which lead to a number of DNA mutations in cells

• Alcohol, tobacco, radiation, etc.

Psychological Dependence

When person believes that they need the drug to feel good

Physical Dependence

When a person has a chemical need for the drug

• State of an individual who has repeatedly taken a drug and experiences unpleasant physiological symptoms

Type B

Laid back; enjoy their achievements; can disappointed when they fall short of their goals but are accepting of it; enjoy games and competitions for the love of the game; tend to achieve/aspire less; less reliable