BIOL 1220 Chapter 1-6 Midterm

principle of complementary means

• structure reflects function

levels of organization

1. chemical

2. cellular

3. tissue

4. organ

5. organ system

6. organism

11 organ systems

1. respiratory

2. cardiac

3. nervous

4. integumentary

5. muscle

6. skeletal

7. digestive

8. lymphatic(immune)

9. reproductive

10. endocrine

11. urinary

homeostasis

• maintenance of stable conditions in a constantly changing environment

• dynamic equilibrium

• variables: factors that can change

• receptor, control centre, effector

positive feedback

• cascade

• blood clotting of platelets

• uterine contractions due to oxytocin

negative feedback

• a response stops/reduces stimulus after reaching a set point

• body temperature

• blood glucose

dehydration synthesis

• combination of monomers into polymers

• removal of H and OH to form bond

hydrolysis

• addition of water

• breakdown of polymers

carbohydrates

• monosaccharides: simplest carbohydrate, simple sugars(glucose)

• disaccharaides: two sugars(sucrose)

• polysaccharides: multiple sugars, long chain of carbohydrate molecules(glycogen)

what are the three types of lipids?

• triglycerides

• phospholipids

• steroids

triglycerides

• glycerol and 3 fatty acids

• energy storage, insulation, protection

• solid fat(saturated) or oil(unsaturated) with double bond

• trans fat: unsaturated fatty oil that resembles saturated, unhealthy

• omega-3 fatty acids: heart healthy

phospholipids

• phosphate group, glycerol, 2 fatty acids

• hydrophilic head: polar, attracted to water

• hydrophobic tail: non-polar, repelled by water

steroids

• ring structure

• cholesterol: important in cell membrane stability, basic material for hormones, etc

• vitamin D: required in calcium absorption in bones

• prostagladins: important in inflammatory response

eicosanoids

• prostagladins

• role in blood clotting, blood pressure, inflammation, and labour contractions

proteins

• amine group(NH2), acid group(COOH), and R(20 different amino acids)

• peptide bonds: covalent bond between two amino acids(monomer of proteins)

structural levels of proteins

• primary: the order of linear sequence of amino acids

• secondary: alpha helix(coils) or beta pleated sheets(accordion ribbons)

• tertiary: hold chain folds, shape

• quaternary: how different polypeptides interact with each other

cell membrane protein functions

• transport

• receptors of signal transduction

• enzymes

• cell-cell recognition(glycoproteins)

• attach to the extracellular matrix and cytoskeleton

• cell-cell joining

denaturation

• protein loses shape = loss in function

• temperature(high) can cause denaturation

• also pH

protein enzymes

• acts as catalyst, lowers activation energy needed for chemical reaction

steps of protein enzymes

1. substrate binds to enzyme(forms substrate-enzyme complex)

2. enzyme activates and rearranges substrates(ex. undergoes dehydration synthesis)

3. product releases

nucleic acids

• nitrogenous base, phosphate group, pentose sugar

• adenine and thymine(uracil)

• cytosine and guanine

• DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid, double helix with deoxyribose, blueprint for protein synthesis

• RNA: ribonucleic acid, single strand with ribose ,carry out DNA orders

adenosine triphosphate

• ATP, adenine and ribose(adenosine) with 3 phosphate

• phosphorylation, for transport(proteins), mechanical(contraction), or chemical work(reactions)

• regenerates in the mitochondria

fluid mosaic model of cell membrane

• phospholipid bilayer: hyrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

• cholesterol: maintains cell stability and fluidity

• integral proteins

• peripheral proteins

• carbohydrates: glycocalyx

integral proteins

• many are trans-membrane(span membrane)

• embedded in the cell membrane

• function as transport proteins, enzymes, or receptors

peripheral proteins

• perimeter of membrane(loosely attached)

• function as enzymes, motor proteins, and cell-to-cell connections

• G-proteins: intramembrane peripheral protein

glycocalyx

• umbrella term for glycoproteins and glycolipids

• consists of sugars sticking out of cell

• cell recognition(self vs non-self)

tight junctions

• impermeable junctions, prevention of molecules from passing through

• continuous seals

• found in lining of stomach

desmosomes

• rivet-like junctions, linker proteins called cadherins interlock

• cadherins are attached to plaques(button-like area)

• help cells from tearing apart

• found in skin, bladder(great mechanical stress)

gap junctions

• connexons(channels) allow small molecules to pass(ions, simple sugars)

• electrical signals

• found in cardiac and smooth muscles

passive transport

• down concentration gradient, no energy

• simple diffusion

• facilitated diffusion(carrier and channel-mediated)

• osmosis

simple diffusion

• small molecules(ions, non-polar lipid-soluble, oxygen, steroid hormones, fatty acids)

• diffuse directly through membrane

• not attracted to the hydrophilic head of the lipid nor the fatty tail

• small amounts of water

facilitated diffusion

• carrier-mediated: transports specific polar molecules(sugars or amino acids), changes shape, saturated when all are bounded

• channel-mediated: leakage or gated

osmosis

• diffusion of water across the membrane

• aquaporins(water specific channels)

• tonicity: ability of solution to change shape of cell

• osmolarity: amount of solute per L of solvent

active transport

• against concentration gradient, requires energy

• primary or secondary

primary active transport

• phosphorylation of ATP changes shape of protein to power work

• sodium potassium pump

secondary active transport

• concentration gradient created by primary active transport, drives movement of other molecules

• ex: ATP-driven Na-K pump creates a steep concentration gradient, as Na diffuses back across membrane it drives glucose against its concentration gradient into cell

vesicular transport

• endocytosis(phagocytosis and pinocytosis): transport into the cell

• exocytosis: transport out of the cell

• transcytosis(in, across, out of cell)

resting membrane potential(RMP)

• neurons, muscle cells

• when the movement caused by concentration gradient equals the movement caused by electrical gradient

• potassium has ranges of -90V, when sodium is added ranges around -70V

• resting membrane potential is passive transport, set by leakage channels

• RMP maintained by ATPase Na/K pump

voltage

• difference in electrical charge

polarized (cell)

• cells that have a charge

plasma membrane receptors

• contact signaling: cell touch and recognize eachother(immune system)

• chemical signaling: receptors and ligands that cause changes in cellular activites

• g-proteins: intermediate messanger, intramembrane peripheral protein

g-protein function

• acts as a middle messanger, relays message between two parts of the cell

• ligand(first messanger) binds to receptor

• receptor binds to g-protein and activates it

• activated g-protein activates an effector protein

• activated protein enzymes catalyze reactions producing second messanger(cAMP, Ca2+)

• second messangers activate other enzymes

parts of the cell

• plasma membrane: seperates internal, external

• mitochondria: power house of the cell

• ribosomes: protein synthesis

• rough endoplasmic reticulum: protein folding and transport

• smooth endoplasmic reticulum: lipid and steroid hormone synthesis

• golgi apparatus: packaging, sorting, and export

• lysosomes: digestive enzymes, break down of unneeded internal and other external material

• peroxisomes: detoxification, free radicals

• centrioles: barrel shaped, for positioning, cell division

• microtubules: maintain cell shape and structure, resist compression

• microfilaments: cell movement and actin

• intermediate filaments: resist tension

cell cycle

• interphase(G1, S, G2)

• mitotic phase

• prophase: chromosomes condense, mitotic spindle forms and nuclear envelop disappears

• metaphase: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate

• anaphase: kinetechores pull sister chromatids apart to opposite ends

• telophase: nuclear envelop reforms, nucleolus forms

• cytokinesis: cleavage furrow, cell splits

four types of tissue

• epithelial

• muscle

• connective

• nervous

epithelial tissue

• cells that cover body surfaces and cavities

• apical and basal layer(polarized)

• avascular: no blood flow, innervated(nourished through diffusion from underlying connective tissue)

simple squamous epithelium

• single flat cells

• filtration and diffusion

• air sacs of lungs, kidney glomeruli, lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels

simple cuboidal epithelium

• single square cells with central nuclei

• absorption and secretion

• ducts and secretory portions of small glands, surface of ovaries, and kidney tubules

simple columnar epithelium

• single tall closely packed cells

• secretion of mucus and enzymes, absorption

• ciliated in bronchi, uterine tubes, uterus(female reproductive tract)

• non-ciliated in digestive tract, bladder

pseudostratified cilliated columnar epithelium

• single layer of differing heights, looks like multiple

• secretes mucus, ciliated moves mucus

• lines the trachea and upper respiratory tract

stratified squamous epithelium

• multi-layered squamous epithelium, basal layer is more cuboidal/columnar

• protects against abrasion

• keretinized in skin

• non-keretinized in moist lining, mouth, esophagus, vagina

transitional epithelium

• multi-layer, mushroom shape

• stretching and expansion

• bladder, ureters, and urethra

glandular epithelia

• epithelium specialized to produce and secrete substances

• two main types, exocrine and endocrine

exocrine glands

• release externally out of body(sweat)

• secretes through ducts

• unicellular

• multicellular

unicellular exocrine gland

• goblet cells(epithelial linings and respiratory tract)

• mucin: dissolves in water to form mucus

multicellular exocrine gland

• simple or compound(branches)

• tubular(linear) or alveolar(sacs)

• merocrine: secrete via exocytosis as it is created(sweat), pancreas)

• holocrine: accumulate then rupture(sebaceous oil glands

endocrine glands

• cells that are ductless(released into interstital fluid)

• hormones(endocrine system)

muscle tissue (3 types)

• skeletal

• cardiac

• smooth

skeletal muscle tissue

• long cells, striated, multi-nuclei

• voluntary movement, produces heat and protects organs

• attached to bones

cardiac muscle tissue

• short, branched, striated, single nuclei, intercalated discs

• contracts to move blood in heart, involuntary

• heart

smooth muscle tissue

• short and spindle shaped, single nuclei

• involuntary movement of material, food, air, secretion, blood

• walls of major organs and passage ways

connective tissue (5 types)

• loose/dense connective tissue proper(fibroblasts)

• cartilage(chondrocytes)

• compact bone connective tissue(osteocytes)

• blood connective tissue

areolar loose connective tissue proper

• web-like, all 3 fibers

• has fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells

• wraps and cushions organs, macrophages phagocytize bacteria, inflammation

• widely found under epithelia of body, mucous membranes, and surrounds capillaires

adipose loose connective tissue proper

• limited matrix, adipocytes push nuclei to side

• fuel storage, insulation, supports and protects organs

• under subcutaneous tissue, around kidneys and eyeballs, abdomen, mammary region

reticular loose connective tissue proper

• reticular fibers, looks like tree branches

• supports blood cells

• lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen

dense regular loose connective tissue proper

• waves of collagen fibers

• attaches muscles to bones, bones to bones, withstands tensile stress when pulling in one direction

• tendons, most ligaments, and aponeuroses

hyaline cartilage connective tissue

• lacunae, glassy-like collagen fibers form matrix

• supports and reinforces, cushion, resists compression stress

• forms embryonic skeleton, ends of long bones in join cavities, costal cartilages of ribs, nose, trachea, larynx

elastic cartilage connective tissue

• elastic fibers matrix with lacuna, looks hairy

• maintains shape, while allowing flexibility

• external ear, epiglottis

fibrocartilage connective tissue

• thick collagen fibers

• tensile strength to absorp compressive shock

• intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs in knee joint

compact bone connective tissue

• hard, calcified matrix with collagen fibers, highly vascularized

• supports and protects, acts as lever for muscles to act on, stores calcium and other minerals and fat

blood connective tissue

• red and white blood cells in fluid matrix

• has leukocytes(white blood cells)

• transports gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances

• blood vessels

nervous tissue

• neurons, branching cells, axons and dendrites

• transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors to effectors

• brain, spinal cord, nerves

what are the three lining membranes?

• cutaneous membranes

• mucous membranes

• serous membranes

cutaneous membranes

• another name for skin

• stratified squamous epithelium(epidermis) with the dermis(connective tissue)

• dry membrane

mucous membranes

• line body cavities that open up to the exterior

• also called muscosae

serous membranes

• line body cavities that are closed to the exterior

• also called serousae

• ex. pleurae(lungs), pericardium(heart), peritoneum(abdomen)

epidermis

• superficial layer of skin

• keratinized stratified squamous epitheium, made up of keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile epithelial cells

• stratum corneum

• stratum lucidum

• stratum granulosum

• stratum spinosum

• stratum basale

stratum corneum

• first layer of epithelium

• 20-30(thickest layer) layers of dead keratinized keratinocytes

• shed regularly

stratum lucidum

• thin layer of dead keratinocytes found only in thick skin

• thick skin is palms, soles

stratum granulosum

• 1-5 layers of keratinocytes

• where keratinization occurs

• lipids and proteins make this layer water resistant

stratum spinosum

• several layers of keratinocytes that contain intermediate filaments

• has dendritic cells

stratum basale

• single layer of stem cells that under go mitosis and create keratinocytes

• tactile cells

• melanocytes for melanin, pigment production

dermis

• papillary layer

• reticular layer

• blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands

papillary dermis

• one of the two layers of the dermis; made of loose, areolar connective tissue

• connective tissue and blood vessels, gives nutrients to the dermis

dermal papillae

• finger-like

• projection of dermis into stratum basale of epidermis

• free nerve endings, capillaries, touch receptors

reticular dermis

• one of the two layers of the dermis

• underlying the papillary layer

• composed of thick dense irregular connective tissue

sudoriferous glands

• produce sweat to cool the body

• merocrine(eccrine) and apocrine sweat glands

eccrine sweat gland

• palms, soles of feet, forehead

• produce sweat for thermoregulation

• releases via duct directly onto skin

• also called merocrine sweat gland

apocrine sweat gland

• found on armpits and anogenital region

• body odor, bacteria eat compounds

• starts functioning at puberty

sebaceous sweat gland

• directly attached to hair follicles

• secretes sebum, lubricating stratum corneum, keeping it pliable

arrector pili muscle

• smooth muscle connect to hair root

• contracts in response to sympathetic nervous system

• goose bumps

hypodermis

• subcutaneous tissue

• lies beneath dermis, maintain loose connective and fatty tissues

functions of skin

1. protection(chemical sweat, physical barrier keratin)

2. biological barrier(immune response)

3. metabolic functions, vitamin D synthesis

4. blood reservior

5. excretion

6. body temperature regulation: can hold or shunt blood to body

7. cutaneous sensations(tactile cells)

skeletal cartilages

• hyaline cartilage: nose, costal regions of ribs, ends of long bones(joints), respiratory tract

• elastic cartilage: nose and epiglottis

• fibrocartilage: knee and invertebral discs, pubic symphisis

functions of bones

1. support

2. anchorage/movement

3. blood cell formation

4. triglyceride storage

5. hormone production(osteoclasin)

6. protection

7. mineral storage

appositional growth

• cartilage-forming cells secrete new matrix away from the perichondrium

• bone width growth

• new matrix laid down on surface of cartilage

interstitial growth

• chondrocytes divide and expand from within(epiphyseal plate)

• long bone growth

• new matrix made within cartilage

long bones

• longer than they are wide

• arms, legs, fingers, toes

• act as levers for muscles to act upon

short bones

• similar length width, thickness

• carpals and tarsals

• support and stability

• sesamoid bones(help resist compression)

flat bones

• thin, flattened, sometimes curved

• protection of internal organs

• sternum, ribs, cranial bones, scapula