Psychology 101 Memory, Learning, and Cognitive Heuristics

Mnemonic

A mnemonic is a memory trick or shortcut that helps you remember information using letters, phrases, or patterns. 👉 Example: "CLeSS" helps remember Color, Lightness, Shape, Size constancies.

Retinal disparity

Eyes see slightly different images → brain judges distance.

Convergence

Eyes turn inward for close objects.

Monocular

1 eye

Relative size

bigger = closer

Relative clarity

clearer = closer

Linear perspective

parallel lines meet far away

Perceptual Constancy

perception stays the same even when appearance changes

Color constancy

object looks same color under different lighting

Lightness constancy

same brightness in different light

Shape constancy

same shape at different angles

Size constancy

same size at different distances

Classical Conditioning

Learning by Association (Pavlov's dogs)

UCS

food

UCR

salivation

CS

bell

CR

salivation to bell

Acquisition

pairing CS + UCS → learning starts

Generalization

similar stimuli → same response

Discrimination

respond to only one specific CS

Extinction

CS without UCS → CR fades

Spontaneous recovery

CR reappears after rest

Second-order conditioning

new CS linked to old CS

Conditioned aversion

negative association (e.g., wolves avoid sheep after sickness)

Little Albert

fear conditioned to white rat

Counterconditioning

reverse fear with positive pairings

Operant Conditioning

Learning by Consequences (Skinner & Thorndike)

Law of Effect

rewarded acts repeat

Skinner Box

rat presses lever → food

Positive Reinforcement

add reward (candy)

Negative Reinforcement

remove bad (stop shock)

Positive Punishment

add bad (yelling)

Negative Punishment

remove good (no phone)

Shaping

reward small steps toward goal

Successive approximations

step-by-step process

Fixed-Ratio (FR)

reward after set # of actions (punch card)

Variable-Ratio (VR)

random # (slot machine = strongest)

Fixed-Interval (FI)

reward after set time (weekly paycheck)

Variable-Interval (VI)

random time (pop quiz)

Intrinsic Motivation

from inside (enjoyment)

Extrinsic Motivation

outside reward (money)

Overjustification

reward kills inner drive

Observational Learning

Modeling: learning by watching others

Bandura's Bobo Doll Study

kids imitated adult aggression

Memory Processes

Encoding → Storage → Retrieval (ESR)

Sensory Memory

brief input (iconic = visual, echoic = sound)

Short-Term Memory (STM)

7 ± 2 chunks

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

limitless storage

Explicit Memory

facts (semantic) + experiences (episodic)

Implicit Memory

skills (procedural), priming, conditioning

Recall

retrieve information without cues

Recognition

identify information with cues

Relearning

learning information again

Forgetting Causes

Encoding failure, Storage decay, Retrieval failure

Amnesia

loss of memory

Anterograde Amnesia

can't form new memories

Retrograde Amnesia

can't recall old memories

Eyewitness Memory

wording affects memory

Spacing Effect

spread studying

Testing Effect

test yourself often

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts

Representativeness Heuristic

match stereotype, ignore facts

Availability Heuristic

what's easiest to recall

Simulation Heuristic

imagine what could've happened

Belief Perseverance

cling to belief even if disproved

Confirmation Bias

look for info that supports belief

Bilingualism

boosts flexibility & cognition

Stereotype Threat

fear of confirming stereotype hurts performance

Growth Mindset

effort improves ability

Maslow's Hierarchy

Physiological, Safety, Belonging, Esteem, Self-actualization

James-Lange Theory

body → emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

body + emotion = same time

Schachter-Singer Theory

arousal + label → emotion

Attributions

Internal (dispositional) vs External (situational)

Fundamental Attribution Error

overrate traits

Actor-Observer Effect

others = traits, self = situation

Self-Serving Bias

success = me, failure = not me