English Techniques

Ethos

When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a presentation of image of self through the text. Reputation is sometimes a factor in ethical appeal, but in all cases the aim is to gain the audience's confidence.

Pathos

When a writer tries to persuade the audience by appealing to their emotions. The aspects of a literary work that elicit sorrow or pity from the audience. An appeal to emotion that can be used as a means to persuade. Over-emotionalism can be the result of an excess of pathos.

Logos

When a writer tries to persuade the audience based on statistics, facts, and reasons. The process of reasoning.

Evidence

Writers use evidence to make their argument stronger and bolster their credibility. There are three main types of evidence: Anecdotal; Expert Opinion and Statistical

Evidence: Expert opinion

To make a writer's position seem more credible, they may quote the opinions of experts that correspond with their own. As in a court case, experts are often called on to make one side seem stronger and more believable.

Evidence: Statistical evidence

Like any form of evidence, statistics can be used to make an argument seem more conclusive, a writer's opinion more valid. Often statistics are used that are out of context, or from unreliable sources. As the saying goes, "There are lies, damned lies, and statistics."

Evidence: Anecdotal evidence

An anecdote is a tale involving real life events, a true story.
Such stories can be used by writers as evidence to back their claims. To support a contention, and to make themselves appear more credible, writers often use personal anecdotes.

Syntax

The way words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. It is sentence structure and how it influences the way a reader perceives a piece of writing.

Repetition

When used sparingly for effect, it can reinforce the writer's message and/or entertain the reader. Writers may repeat a word, a phrase or an entire sentence for emphasis. (Ex. "We will all suffer for years to come unless we stop this government, stop them in the workplace, stop them in the polls, and stop them on election day.")

Cumulation

• Using many similar words in a short space is cumulation and can give weight to the idea being expressed. (Ex. "This task requires guts, determination, grit and willpower”)

Alliteration

This refers to the repetition of the first sound in consecutive words, an effect which draws attention to the words in question. (Ex. "To rip people off so blatantly shows Mr. Craven to be cruel, calculating and crooked.)

Anaphora

The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of a sentence.

Epistrophe

A word or phrase repeated at the end of consecutive lines.

Parallelism

The technique of arranging words, phrases, clauses, or larger structures by placing them side by side and making them similar in form. This term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another" It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. Example (from Churchill): "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields.

Understatement

The ironic minimising of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic.

Expletive

Figure of emphasis in which a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting normal speech, is used to lend emphasis to the words on either side of the expletive. Ex. in fact, of course, to be sure, indeed, I suppose, I hope, you know, you see, clearly, in any event, in effect, certainly, remarkably.

Invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Tone

Similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both.

Undertone

An attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones.

Colloquial language

Refers to the usage of informal or everyday language. This slang can be used in different ways. It can set the writer up as knowledgeable, on the inside of a social group. A writer may also use slang in a sarcastic manner, to attack an opponent or mock an argument. It may also be used to appeal to a reader's own sense of cultural identity, or reinforce a writer's overall tone.

Inclusive language

Inclusive language aims to directly address the reader, either personally or as a member of a shared group. This involves using such words as us, we, you, our.

Synthetic Personalization

the process of addressing mass audiences as though they were individuals through inclusive language usage. This is often done through second person in advertisements (See you after the break-Welcome to McDonald's)

Diction

Is a person "slim" or "skinny"? Is an oil spill an "incident" or an "accident"? Is a government expenditure an "investment" or a "waste"? Writers reinforce their arguments by choosing words.

Connotation

An idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning

Denotation

actual meaning of the word

Euphemism

a more acceptable or usually a more acceptable way of saying something uncomfortable (i.e. collateral damage instead of civilian death)

Lexical Cluster

words pertaining to a particular group or idea. For example, words relating to water or nature.

Ambiguity

Use of language in which multiple meanings are possible. Ambiguity can be unintentional through insufficient focus on the part of the writer; in good writing, ambiguity is frequently intentional in the form of multiple connotative meanings, or situations in which either the connotative or the denotative meaning can be valid in a reading.

Analogy

comparing one situation to another. For example, comparing the game of football to war.

Hyperbole

Completely overstating and exaggerating your point for effect. (Like when your mom says, "I must have asked you a million times to clean your room!")

Imagery

Sensory details in a work; the use of figurative language to evoke a feeling, call to mind an idea, or describe an object. Imagery involves any or all of the five senses

Metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

Metonymy

A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or “substitute name." Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather that "the President declared" is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional response.

Symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete - such as object, action, character, or scene - that represents something more abstract.

Synecdoche (si-nek-duh-kee)

Is a type of metaphor in which the part stands for the whole, the whole for a part, the genus for the species, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made, or in short, any portion, section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself (or vice versa). Ex. Farmer Joe has two hundred head of cattle [whole cattle], and three hired hands [whole people]. If we had some wheels [whole vehicle], I'd put on my best threads [clothes] and ask for Jane's hand [hopefully her whole person] in marriage.

Concession

acknowledging the opposition's main idea

Appeal to authority

A writer may mention an important event or person in an essay to lend importance or credibility to his/her argument. "According to..."

Facts

using statistics or data to support an argument.

Rhetorical question

Sometimes a writer or speaker will ask a question to which no answer is required. The answer is obvious so the reader has no choice but to agree with the writer's point.

Irony

Irony is present if the writer's words contain more than one meaning. This may be in the form of sarcasm, gentle irony, or a pun (play on words). It can be used to add humour or to emphasise an implied meaning under the surface.

Testimonial

using words of an expert, a famous person, or a regular "Joe" to persuade others.

Bandwagon

persuade people to do something by letting them know others are all doing it as well.

Name Calling

describing poor aspects of a competitor's argument/product so that your argument/product seems better.

Card stacking

telling the facts for one side only.

Hypophora

Figure of reasoning in which one or more questions is/are asked and then answered, often at length, by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to one's own question(s). A common usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use the paragraph to answer it. You can use hypophora to raise questions which you think the reader obviously has on his/her mind and would like to see formulated and answered. Ex. "When the enemy struck on that June day of 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth." - Dwight D. Eisenhower

Chiasmus (kahy-az-muhs)

a figure of speech in which two successive phrases or clauses are parallel in syntax, but rev)erse the order of the analogous words. Ex. "The land was ours before we were the land's" - Robert Frost (N, V, Pro: Pro, V)"Pleasure's a sin, and sometimes sin's a pleasure" - Lord Byron. "Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do for your country" -JFK

Antithesis

the presentation of two contrasting ideas. The ideas are balanced by word, phrase, clause, or paragraphs. "To be or not to be..."

Asyndeton

Asyndeton refers to the omission of a conjunction such as "and" or "as" from a series of related clauses. The function of asyndeton is usually to accelerate a passage and emphasise the significance of the relation between these clauses. One famous example is Julius Caesar's comment "Veni, vidi, vic" after a swift victory in battle, translated into English as "I came, I saw, I conquered."

Polysyndeton

A figure of speech in which several conjunctions are used to join connected clauses in places where they are not contextually necessary. For example, consider the following sentence: "The dinner was so good; I ate the chicken, and the salad, and the turkey, and the wild rice, and the bread, and the mashed potatoes, and the cranberry sauce."

Juxtaposition

to place two concepts, characters, ideas, or places near or next to each other so that the reader will compare and contrast them

Epistrophe

A figure of speech that involves the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences. The definition of epistrophe is opposite to that of anaphora, which is the repetition of words at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.

Tricolon

a rhetorical term for a series of three parallel words, phrases, or clauses.