Neuropsychology Exam 1 Mayhew

What is trephination or trepanning?

Making a hole in the skull

Why is trephination/trepanning done?

To relieve swelling in the brain

What do we know about the 'theory' cultures used to justify trepanning?

It was probably medical

What were the two theories about the structure where behavior originates?

Cardiac and Brain hypotheses

What theory was held by Hippocrates?

Brain hypothesis

What theory was held by Aristotle?

Cardiac hypothesis

What did humor theory and ventricular theory aim to explain?

Functions of the brain

What is the difference between humor and ventricular theory?

Humor theory focuses on the 4 bodily fluids and the balance of them while ventricular theory focuses on pipes and cavities in the head that do certain brain functions

What was Galen's knowledge of anatomy based on?

Apes

How did Andreas Vesalius improve upon Galen's knowledge of anatomy? How did he do this?

He was able to cut up convicted criminals and he drew very detailed diagrams of their anatomy

What is phrenology?

The non-scientific map of the brain based on bumps outside of the skull

What is phrenology's relation to localization of function?

It determines personality and qualities

Who were the first two men famous for holding to localization of function in its weird variation?

Franz Joseph Gall and Casper Spurzheim

Who were famous for bringing evidence for localization of function in its non-weird variation?

Broca and Wernicke

What is equipotentiality?

The theory that all parts of the brain have equal ability to perform tasks. If you remove parts of the brain, other parts will take over.

What led Flourens to hold the view of equipotentiality of function of the brain?

What is mass action?

The proportion of the brain that is injured is directly proportional to the decreased ability of memory functions

What led Karl Lashley to hold the mass action view of function in the brain?

What view did Hughlings Jackson propound w.r.t the organization of the nervous system?

Brain is organized in hierarchical way; higher levels are more complex

Motor cortex

Premotor

Thalamus

Spine

PNS

Stimulus

What was Luria's view on the organization of the nervous system?

Nervous system contains 3 functional units

1. Brain stem (basic)

2. Back of brain (sensory/perception)

3. Font of brain (analyzing)

What is the distinction between the central and peripheral nervous system?

CNS processes info and determines appropriate responses while PNS gathers sensory info and controls actions

What parts comprise the central nervous system?

Brain and spinal cord

What is the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous system?

The somatic nervous system controls body /actions/ while autonomic regulates bodily /functions/

Explain the difference between efferent and afferent fibers

Efferent (away)

Afferent (towards)

Ventral

Towards stomach

Dorsal

Towards back

Rostral

Towards snout

Caudal

Towards tail

Medial

Towards middle

Lateral

Towards side

Superior

Towards top of head

Inferior

Towards bottom of head

Anterior

Towards front of head

Posterior

Towards back of head

Sagittal

Cuts side to side

Transverse

Cuts front to back

Horizontal

Cuts top to bottom

Frontal

Front view

Coronal

Frontal view

Midsagittal

Side view

What are the two general classes of cells in the nervous system? What are the ranges of estimates for the quantity of each?

Neurons (100 billion) and Glial cells (1,000-5,000 billion)

What are the parts of a neuron?

Cell body, dendrites, axon

What is the main function of the neuron? What special parts help with this?

Information transmission

Unipolar

One axon one dendrite

Bipolar

Two axons two dendrites

Multipolar

More than two dendrites

What is a myelin sheath?

A membrane wrapped around the axon to help transmission

What difference does it makes if an axon is myelinated or not?

Myelinated axons move info faster

What are the types of glial cells?

Microglia, Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells

What is the function of microglia?

Repair and clean up

What is the function of astrocytes?

Carry out and bring nutrients to neurons, blood brain barrier

What is the function of oligodendrocytes?

Make myelin in the CNS

What is the function of Schwann cells?

Make myelin in the PNS

How are oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells different?

Oligodendrocytes are in the CNS while Schwann cells are in the PNS

How are oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells the same?

They both make myelin

What is the difference in composition between white and gray matter?

White matter is made up of axons while gray matter is made up of cell bodies

Where is gray matter found in the brain?

Outer edges of the brain

What is the relationship between fibers, tracts, and pathways?

They are axons grouped together

What is multiple sclerosis?

An autoimmune disorder where myelin and oligodendrocytes get attacked

What is the general disease mechanism in MS?

Demyelination

Which cells appear to get attacked particularly in MS?

Oligodendrocytes

What is the proximal cause of MS? What is the thinking as to what starts that?

Autoimmune disease; Genetic susceptibility and environment

What categories of symptoms occur in MS?

Sensory, motor, cognitive, and emotional

What could be the cause of the emotional symptoms of MS?

Changes in the brain

What is the incidence of MS in the US?

1 in 2,000

What is the status of the latitude-observation on the incidence of MS across the world?

Closer to equator, less likely to get MS

What is the usual age of onset of MS?

20-40

What is the gender difference in the incidence of MS?

More women than men (.5-2 times more likely)

What are the 3 characteristics of MS that get treated?

Attacks, progression, and symptoms

What is neurogenesis?

Formation of new neurons

What is migration?

Neurons move to permanent locations in the body

When does most neurogenesis take place?

Prenatally

What is synaptogenesis?

Formation of new synapses (connections between neurons)

When does synaptogenesis start? How long does it continue?

Starts ~7 months before birth and continues until 70s/death

What is myelination?

When myelin is formed around axons

When does myelination start and how long does it continue?

Prenatally thru 6 months (auditory and visual) and 12 months (language) and frontal lobes (before 20)

What is synaptic pruning?

Death of unused synapses

When does synaptic pruning start and how long does it continue?

3 to 13 years

What 3 layers does the embryonic plate develop into?

Mesoderm, endoderm, ectoderm

What 2 major structures does the ectoderm develop into?

Nervous tissue and skin

When does the neural tube close on average at the anterior and posterior pores?

Between days 24 and 28

What are the defects that result when the neural pores do not close?

Anencephaly and spinal bifida

Which type of non-closure has the more serious defects?

Anencephaly

What is lissencephaly (agyria)?

Brain formation disorder where neurons do not migrate

What is microcephaly?

Abnormally small head associated with incomplete brain development

Is the mechanism causing microcephaly known?

No

What general types of distal causes for microcephaly are known?

Infections, severe malnutrition, interruption to blood supply of brain during pregnancy

Which virus is in the news for its apparent relationship with microcephaly?

Zika virus

Name the 7 CNS structures caudal to rostral

Spinal cord, medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon, corpus callosum (SMPCMDC)

Which structure in the adult human brain comes from the vertebrate myelencephalon?

Medulla oblongata, fourth ventricle, brain stem

Which structures in the adult human brain come from the vertebrate metencephalon?

Cerebellum, pons, fourth ventricle, brain stem

What is another name for the vertebrate mesencephalon?

Midbrain, tectum, tengentum

Which structures in the adult human brain come from the vertebrate diencephalon?

Thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal body, third ventricle

What structures in the adult human brain come from the vertebrate telencephalon?

Neocortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, olfactory bulb, lateral ventricles, forebrain

What are the names of the meningeal membranes? (In order)

Dura mater (Outer layer)

Arachnoid (Middle layer, overlies subarachnoid space and contains blood vessels)

Pia mater (Inner layer)

Subarachnoid cavity with CSF circulating

Trabeculae

What is the result of folding of the dura in the skull?

Divides brain into two hemispheres and separates cerebrum from cerebellum

What is the subarachnoid space?

Underneath arachnoid with many arteries running through it

What structures and liquid are in the subarachnoid space?

CSF, trabeculae holds subarachnoid space open

What 2 types of brain bleed were mentioned w.r.t their meningeal location?

What is the cerebrospinal fluid? (CSF)

A clear watery fluid that fills the space between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater