AP World OP Study Guide ALL TERMS

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Periodization

The division of world history into six chronological periods: Foundations (to 600 BCE), Classical (600 BCE-600 CE), Post-Classical (600-1450), Early Modern (1450-1750), Modern (1750-1900), and Contemporary (1900-present)

Neolithic Revolution

The transition from nomadic hunting and gathering to settled agriculture around 10,000 BCE, leading to the development of permanent settlements, specialization of labor, and eventually early civilizations

Fertile Crescent

Region extending from Mesopotamia to Egypt where agriculture first developed around 8000 BCE, supporting the world's earliest civilizations due to its fertile soil and reliable water sources

Mesopotamia

Region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern Iraq) where the first urban civilizations developed, including Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria

Hammurabi's Code

One of the earliest written legal codes (c. 1754 BCE), established by the Babylonian king Hammurabi with 282 laws based on the principle of "an eye for an eye" that influenced later legal systems

Ancient Egypt

Civilization that developed along the Nile River around 3100 BCE, known for its pharaohs, pyramids, hieroglyphics, and religious beliefs about afterlife, lasting for nearly 3,000 years

Indus Valley Civilization

Early urban civilization (c. 3300-1300 BCE) in modern Pakistan and northwest India known for its sophisticated urban planning, standardized weights, and advanced sanitation systems

Shang Dynasty

First historically confirmed dynasty in China (c. 1600-1046 BCE) known for bronze metallurgy, oracle bone script (earliest form of Chinese writing), and ancestor worship

Zhou Dynasty

Longest-lasting Chinese dynasty (1046-256 BCE) which introduced the Mandate of Heaven concept and saw the rise of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism during the "Hundred Schools of Thought" period

Persian Empire

Largest empire of the ancient world under Cyrus the Great and Darius I (559-330 BCE), known for its efficient administration, Royal Road communication system, and religious tolerance

Classical Greece

Civilization centered on Athens and Sparta (c. 800-323 BCE) that developed democracy, philosophy, drama, and architectural styles that profoundly influenced Western civilization

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king who conquered the Persian Empire and created one of history's largest empires by age 30 (336-323 BCE), spreading Hellenistic culture throughout Southwest Asia and North Africa

Maurya Empire

First major empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent (322-185 BCE), reaching its peak under Emperor Ashoka who converted to Buddhism and promoted its spread

Qin Dynasty

Brief but significant Chinese dynasty (221-206 BCE) that unified China, standardized writing, currency, and measurements, and began construction of the Great Wall

Han Dynasty

Long-lasting Chinese dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) that expanded Chinese territory, developed the Silk Road trade, and institutionalized Confucianism as state ideology

Roman Republic

Political system in ancient Rome (509-27 BCE) featuring a representative government with checks and balances through the Senate, consuls, and popular assemblies

Roman Empire

Vast empire (27 BCE-476 CE) around the Mediterranean that developed extensive infrastructure, legal systems, and cultural achievements before declining and eventually splitting into Eastern and Western regions

Pax Romana"Roman Peace," a period of relative stability and prosperity within the Roman Empire (27 BCE-180 CE) under Augustus and the "Five Good Emperors"

Silk Roads

Network of trade routes connecting East Asia to the Mediterranean world, facilitating exchange of goods, technologies, religions, and diseases from 130 BCE to 1453 CE

Indian Ocean Trade Network

Maritime trade system connecting East Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia from as early as 300 BCE, characterized by seasonal monsoon patterns and cultural exchanges

Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

Commercial networks across the Sahara Desert connecting North Africa with West Africa, facilitating exchange of gold, salt, and slaves from c. 300 CE onward

Byzantine Empire

Eastern continuation of the Roman Empire (330-1453 CE) centered in Constantinople, known for preserving Greco-Roman culture, developing Orthodox Christianity, and creating the Justinian Code

Islam

Monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad in 610 CE in Arabia, based on the Quran and Five Pillars, which rapidly spread through conquest and conversion across the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond

Caliphate

Islamic political-religious state led by a caliph, considered Muhammad's successor, beginning with the Rashidun Caliphate and followed by the Umayyad, Abbasid, and Ottoman Caliphates

Tang Dynasty

Chinese dynasty (618-907 CE) marking a golden age of arts and culture, territorial expansion, and influence in East Asia

Song Dynasty

Chinese dynasty (960-1279 CE) noted for economic prosperity, technological innovation, and the development of scholar-official class through civil service examinations

Medieval Europe

European civilization from the fall of Rome to the Renaissance (c. 500-1500 CE), characterized by feudalism, manorialism, the Catholic Church's dominance, and the Crusades

Feudalism

Political and social system in medieval Europe based on lords granting land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for military service and loyalty

Crusades

Series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church (1095-1291) to recover the Holy Land from Islamic rule, resulting in increased European exposure to Islamic knowledge and trade goods

Black Death

Pandemic that killed 30-50% of Europe's population (1347-1351), causing labor shortages, peasant revolts, and economic restructuring that weakened feudalism

Mongol Empire

Largest contiguous land empire in history (1206-1368), established by Genghis Khan and his successors, facilitating Eurasian trade and cultural exchange during the "Pax Mongolica"

Ottoman Empire

Islamic empire (1299-1922) that conquered Constantinople in 1453, controlled much of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa, and served as a bridge between East and West

Ming Dynasty

Chinese dynasty (1368-1644) known for restoration of Han Chinese rule after Mongol control, maritime expeditions under Admiral Zheng He, and isolationist policies in later periods

Renaissance

Cultural, artistic, and intellectual movement in Europe (14th-17th centuries) characterized by revival of classical learning, scientific inquiry, artistic innovations, and humanism

Protestant Reformation

Religious movement initiated by Martin Luther in 1517 that challenged Catholic Church authority, leading to new Christian denominations and religious wars throughout Europe

Scientific Revolution

Intellectual movement in Europe (16th-18th centuries) that transformed understanding of the natural world through observation, experimentation, and mathematical reasoning

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement in Europe (18th century) emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights, influencing revolutions in politics and industry

Columbian Exchange

Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following Columbus's voyages, transforming ecosystems, agriculture, and populations globally

Atlantic Slave Trade

Forced transportation of 12-15 million Africans to the Americas (16th-19th centuries) to work on plantations, creating lasting demographic, economic, and social impacts

Triangular Trade

Commercial pattern linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas with Europe exporting manufactured goods to Africa, Africa providing slaves to the Americas, and the Americas sending raw materials to Europe

Mercantilism

Economic theory practiced by European powers (16th-18th centuries) emphasizing accumulation of gold and silver, favorable trade balance, and colonial resources extraction to benefit the mother country

Industrial Revolution

Economic and technological transformation beginning in Britain (c. 1760-1840) characterized by factory production, urbanization, steam power, and new transportation systems

Imperialism

Policy of extending a nation's power through territorial acquisition or economic and political domination of other nations, particularly European expansion in Asia and Africa during the 19th century

Scramble for Africa

Rapid colonization of Africa by European powers between 1881-1914, where approximately 90% of African territory came under European control

Nationalism

Ideology based on loyalty and devotion to the nation-state, often emphasizing shared culture, language, and history, which rose to prominence in the 19th century

Meiji Restoration

Period of modernization in Japan (1868-1912) when the feudal shogunate was abolished, imperial rule restored, and Western-style political, economic, and military systems adopted

World War I

Global conflict (1914-1918) triggered by European alliances and nationalism, resulting in approximately 20 million deaths, the collapse of four empires, and redrawn boundaries

Russian Revolution

Series of revolutions in 1917 that overthrew the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the world's first communist state under Lenin and the Bolsheviks

Great Depression

Severe worldwide economic depression (1929-1939) beginning with the U.S. stock market crash, leading to political instability and the rise of authoritarian regimes

World War II

Global conflict (1939-1945) involving Axis and Allied powers, including the Holocaust, atomic bombings, and approximately 70-85 million deaths, reshaping the international order

Cold War

State of geopolitical tension between the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc and US-led Western Bloc (1947-1991) characterized by proxy wars, nuclear arms race, and ideological competition

Decolonization

Process by which colonies gained independence from European powers, primarily occurring between 1945-1975, resulting in dozens of new nation-states in Africa and Asia

United Nations

International organization established in 1945 to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, and promote social progress and human rights

Globalization

Process of increased interconnectedness and interdependence among countries through growing economic, political, technological, and cultural exchanges, accelerating in the late 20th century

Mandate of Heaven

Chinese political concept that heaven granted emperors the right to rule based on their moral character and ability to govern justly

Confucianism

Ethical and philosophical system developed by Confucius emphasizing proper social relationships, filial piety, and meritocracy, heavily influencing East Asian societies

Buddhism

Religion and philosophy originating in ancient India based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) about achieving enlightenment and ending suffering

Hinduism

Ancient religious tradition originating in the Indian subcontinent with diverse beliefs and practices, including karma, dharma, reincarnation, and multiple paths to spiritual liberation

Bantu Migrations

Gradual movement of Bantu-speaking peoples from West Africa throughout Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa (c. 1000 BCE-1500 CE), spreading language, agriculture, and ironworking techniques

Maya Civilization

Mesoamerican civilization with advanced writing, mathematics, calendar systems, and monumental architecture, flourishing in present-day Mexico and Central America (c. 250-900 CE)

Aztec Empire

Mesoamerican state centered in Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City) that controlled much of central Mexico (1428-1521) until Spanish conquest under Hernán Cortés

Inca Empire

Largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas (1438-1533) spanning western South America with sophisticated road systems, terrace farming, and administrative structures

Green Revolution

Introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, irrigation infrastructure, and synthetic fertilizers in developing countries (1950s-1970s) that dramatically increased agricultural production

Marshall Plan

U.S. program providing economic assistance to Western Europe after World War II (1948-1952), aimed at rebuilding war-devastated regions and preventing the spread of communism

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries formed in 1960 to coordinate petroleum policies and ensure stable oil markets, gaining significant economic and political leverage during the 1973 oil crisis

Cultural Revolution

Sociopolitical movement in China (1966-1976) launched by Mao Zedong to preserve "true" Communist ideology by purging traditional and capitalist elements from Chinese society

Détente

Period of eased Cold War tensions between the United States and Soviet Union (late 1960s-1970s) marked by arms control agreements and increased diplomatic, commercial, and cultural exchanges

Berlin Wall

Physical barrier dividing East and West Berlin (1961-1989) as a symbol of the Iron Curtain separating Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War

Containment

U.S. Cold War policy aimed at stopping the spread of communism by diplomatic, economic, and military means without direct military confrontation with the Soviet Union

Neo-imperialism

Control of less-developed nations by developed nations through economic and political means rather than direct colonial rule, often seen in post-colonial relationships

Maoism

Chinese variant of Marxism-Leninism developed by Mao Zedong emphasizing peasant revolution, continuous revolution, and mass mobilization

Apartheid

System of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa (1948-1991), reserving political power and economic privilege for the white minority

Non-Aligned Movement

Coalition of states not formally aligned with either the Western or Eastern blocs during the Cold War, founded in 1961 to maintain independence in international politics

Green Revolution

Introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, irrigation infrastructure, and synthetic fertilizers in developing countries (1950s-1970s) that dramatically increased agricultural production

NAFTA

North American Free Trade Agreement implemented in 1994 to eliminate trade barriers between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, later replaced by USMCA in 2020

European Union

Political and economic union of 27 member states in Europe, evolving from the European Economic Community founded in 1957 to promote peace and economic integration

Arab Spring

Wave of pro-democracy protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions in the Middle East and North Africa beginning in 2010, resulting in regime changes in several countries but also civil wars and instability

Great Divergence

Process by which Western Europe and its offshoots surpassed China and other parts of the world in economic development from approximately 1750 onward

Neoliberalism

Economic theory emphasizing deregulation, privatization, free trade, and reduced government spending that gained prominence in the 1980s under Reagan and Thatcher

Anthropocene

Proposed geological epoch dating from the start of significant human impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems, including climate change and biodiversity loss

Indian Independence Movement

Campaign for independence from British rule led by Mahatma Gandhi and others using nonviolent resistance, resulting in independence and partition in 1947

Tiananmen Square Protests

Student-led demonstrations in Beijing (April-June 1989) advocating for democracy, free speech, and economic liberalization, violently suppressed by the Chinese government

Soviet-Afghan War

Conflict between Soviet-led Afghan forces and multi-national insurgent groups (1979-1989) that contributed to the Soviet Union's collapse and the rise of Taliban rule

Rwandan Genocide

Mass slaughter of Tutsi and moderate Hutu by members of the Hutu majority government in 1994, resulting in an estimated 500,000-1,000,000 deaths in 100 days

Khmer Rouge

Radical communist regime led by Pol Pot that ruled Cambodia (1975-1979), implementing aggressive agrarian policies and genocide that killed approximately 1.5-2 million people

Latin American Liberation Theology

Religious movement emerging in the 1960s that interpreted Christian faith from the perspective of the poor and oppressed, advocating for social justice and political liberation

Economic Tigers

Term for the rapidly developing economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan from the 1960s-1990s, characterized by export-oriented industrialization

Third Wave Democratization

Global movement toward democracy from the 1970s through the early 2000s, beginning in Southern Europe, spreading to Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe

BRICS

Acronym for the association of five major emerging economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, representing about 40% of world population and 25% of global GDP

Arab-Israeli Conflict

Ongoing political tension and series of military conflicts between Israel and Arab states since Israel's establishment in 1948, centered on territorial disputes and Palestinian national aspirations

Treaty of Versailles

Peace agreement signed in 1919 ending World War I, imposing harsh penalties on Germany that contributed to economic instability and the rise of Nazism

Gupta Empire

Indian empire (320-550 CE) known as the "Golden Age" of Indian civilization, marked by achievements in mathematics, astronomy, art, literature, and architecture

Songhai Empire

West African state (15th-16th centuries) centered in modern Mali that controlled trans-Saharan trade routes and became one of the largest African empires

Tokugawa Shogunate

Japanese military government (1603-1868) that enforced strict social hierarchy, isolationist foreign policy, and centralized feudalism

Age of Exploration

Period of extensive overseas exploration (15th-17th centuries) led by Portugal and Spain, later joined by other European powers, opening global maritime routes

Marbury v. Madison

1803 U.S. Supreme Court case establishing the principle of judicial review, allowing courts to invalidate laws that conflict with the Constitution

Marshall Plan

U.S. program providing economic assistance to Western Europe after World War II (1948-1952), aimed at rebuilding war-devastated regions and preventing the spread of communism

Iranian Revolution

1979 uprising that overthrew the pro-Western monarchy of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and established an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Khomeini

Perestroika

Political and economic reforms introduced by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s, contributing to the end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union