2 - speech and thought presentation (categories, how to identify, what effects do they produce)

what does speech and thought presentation measure?

The level of detail with which utterances or thoughts are reported, and whether characters’ words are replaced with the reporter’s own words.

Does the framework measure accuracy or truth?

No, it measures how truthful/accurate the reporting claims to be (e.g. exact words, gist or vague summary), not whether the words were really said or thought.

What are the five main categories of speech/thought presentation?

• Direct Speech/Thought (DS/DT)

• Free Direct Speech/Thought (FDS/FDT)

• Indirect Speech/Thought (IS/IT)

• Free Indirect Speech/Thought (FIS/FIT)

• Narrative Report of Speech/Thought Act (NRSA/NRTA)

What are some features of Direct Speech/Thought?

• Exact words given (often in quotation marks)

• Speaker identified

• Reporting verb present (e.g. said, whispered, thought)

Example: “CHANEL!” Hannah screamed

Features of Free Direct Speech/Thought?

• Exact words given (often but not always in quotation marks)

• Speaker not explicitly identified

• No reporting verb

Example: “CHANEL!”

Features of Indirect Speech/Thought?

• Speaker’s words are paraphrased into a that-clause

• Tense/pronoun shifts (“backshift”) common

• No quotation marks

Example: She said that she would go there again the next day

What is “backshift” in IS/IT (indirect speech / indirect thought)?

Present tense → past tense; pronouns and adverbials of proximity shift (I → she, here → there, come → go).

Why might backshift sometimes not occur?

To keep truth-value relevant, mimic real conversation, or maintain present relevance.

What is Free Indirect Speech/Thought?

A blend of narrator’s and character’s words, with no reporting clause.

Why is FIS/FIT (Free Indirect Speech / Thought) difficult to identify?

It’s subjective, often overlaps with NRSA, and relies on language cues.

Features of Free Indirect Speech / FIT?

• Deictic markers (She would go tomorrow)

• Emotive features (She couldn’t possibly go!)

• Linguistic variation (She wadnae go)

Example: Hannah desperately tried to find Chanel. CHANEL!

Different effect of FIS vs FIT?

FIS often used to mock a speaker; FIT often invites sympathy for the thinker.

What did Leech & Short argue about FIS?

• No single feature (e.g. past tense, 3rd person) is required.

• A reporting clause may still appear.

• Identification relies on a blend of narrator + character voice.

Features of Narrative Report of Speech / Thought Act?

• Narrator summarises act of speaking/thinking

• Only general topic given, not exact wording

• Often used in novels or news reports

Example: She was screaming about a parrot

Can every passage be categorised neatly?

No—it can be subjective, especially with FIS.

What should you do if you’re unsure about the category of the passage?

Give your reasoning and show awareness of ambiguity.

What is a reporting clause?

The clause framing the utterance (e.g. he said).

What is a Reporting verb?

The verb in the reporting clause (e.g. said, thought).

What is a Reported clause?

The content being reported (e.g. that he liked tea).

What is Reporting speech event?

When the words are reported.

What is a Reported speech event?

When the words were originally spoken.