PYSC 1010 Exam 1

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Behavior

all of our outward or overt actions and reactions

Mental processes

all the internal, covert activity of our minds

Consciousness

 the state of being aware of external events

Wilhelm Wundt

physiologist; believed the consciousness could be broken down into thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic elements (structuralist)

Objective introspection

the process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities

Edward Titchener

Wundt's student; structuralism; believed that every experience could be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations; believed objective introspection could also be used on thoughts

Structuralism

study with a focus on the structure of the mind

William James

instructor of anatomy & physiology; believed that scientific study of consciousness itself was not yet possible; functionalism

Functionalism

focus on how the mind allows people to function in the real world (ie. work, play, and adapt to their surroundings)

Gestalt Psychology

the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Max Wertheimer

believed that psychological events such as perceiving and sensing could not be broken down into smaller elements and still be properly understood

Cognitive psychology

a field focusing on perception, learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving

Sigmund Freud

neurologist; proposed that there is an unconscious mind into which we repress all of our threatening urges and desires; believed that these repressed urges created nervous disorders

Psychoanalysis

the theory and therapy based on Freud's ideas

Psychotherapy

a process in which a trained psychological professional helps a person gain insight into and changes his/her behavior

Ivan Pavlov

physiologist; showed that a reflex could be caused to occur in response to a formerly unrelated stimulus

Reflex

an involuntary reaction

Pavlov’s dog

the sound of a metronome caused dogs' mouths to water and to expect food

Behaviorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only; founded by John Watson

Observable behavior

something that could be directly seen and measured

Psychodynamic Perspective

modern version of psychoanalysis that is more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind a person's behavior other than sexual motivations

Behavioral Perspective

operant conditioning; behavioral responses that are followed by pleasurable consequences are reinforced

Humanistic Perspective

the "third force" in psychology that focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely human (ie. Subjective feeling, free will, self-actualization)

Cognitive Perspective

major force in psychology with a focus on memory, intelligence, perception, thoughts processes, problem solving, language, and learning

Cognitive neuroscience

the study of the physical workings of the brain and nervous system when engaged in memory, thinking, and other cognitive processes

Sociocultural perspective

perspective that focuses on the influence of social interactions, society, and culture on an individual’s thinking and behavior

Social psychology

the study of groups, social roles, and rules of social relationships

Cultural psychology

the study of cultural norms, values, and expectations

Cross-cultural research

the study of the contrast and comparisons of a behavior or issue in at least two or more cultures

Diffusion of responsibility

the tendency to feel that someone else is responsible for taking action when others are present

Biopsychological Perspective

perspective that attributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body

Biopsychology

the study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes

Neuroscience

the study of the physical structure, function, and development of the nervous system

Schizophrenia

a mental disorder involving delusions, hallucinations, and extremely disordered thinking

Evolutionary Perspective

perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share

Evolutionary psychologists

psychologists who study the evolutionary origins of human behavior

Eclectic Perspective

a perspective that uses the "bits and pieces" of several perspectives that seem to best fit a situation

Psychologist

a professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology

Psychiatrist

a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders

Psychiatric social worker

a social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses on the environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse

Basic research

research focused on adding information to the scientific knowledge base

Applied research

research focused on finding practical solutions to real-world problems

Critical thinking

making reasoned judgments

Four basic criteria for critical thinking

1. There are very few "truths" that do not need to be tested

2. All evidence is not equal in quality

3. Just because someone is considered to be an expert does not make everything that person claims automatically true

4. Critical thinking requires an open mind

The scientific approach

an approach to research intending to reduce the likelihood of bias and error in the measurement of data

Psychology’s goals

• Description: What is happening?

• Explanation: Why is it happening?

• Theory -- a general explanation of a set of observations or facts

• Prediction: When will it happen again?

• Control: How can it be changed?

Five steps of the scientific approach

1. perceiving the question

2. forming a hypothesis

3. testing the hypothesis

4. drawing conclusions

5. report your results

Naturalistic observation

Allows researchers to get a realistic picture of how behavior occurs because they are actually watching that behavior in its natural setting

Observer effect

animals or people who know they are being watched will not behave normally

Participant observation

The researcher becomes a participant in a group

Laboratory observation

The researcher brings test subjects to the equipment, controlling the different factors that may affect the subjects (i.e. age, size, number of) as well as everything else that goes on in the laboratory

Case studies

When one individual is studied in great detail and researchers try to learn everything they can about that one individual

Provides a lot of detail

Surveys

Can be conducted in the form of interviews, on the phone, through the Internet, or with a written questionnaire

The questions used can vary, but usually the questions are all the same for everyone answering the survey

Researchers can get a lot of data

Correlation

a measure of the relationship between two or more variables

Variable

anything that can change or vary

Correlation coefficient (r)

a number that represents the direction of the relationship and its strength

The placebo effect

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior

Experimenter effect

tendency of the experimenter's expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study

Single-blind study

study in which the participants do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group

Double-blind study

study in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know if the participants are in the experimental or the control group

Nervous system

an extensive network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body

Biological psychology (behavioral neuroscience)

the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning

Neuron

the specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages within that system

Dendrites

branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons

Soma

the cell body; the part of the cell that contains the nucleus and keeps the entire cell alive and functioning; "body"

Axon

a tubelike structure of a neuron that carries the neural message from the cell body to the axon terminals for communication with other cells

Axon terminals

enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells

Glial cells

cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coax axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and influence the generation of new neurons

Homeostasis

balance in the nervous system

Myelin

fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse

Tracts

bundles of myelin-coated axons that travel together in the central nervous system

Nerves

bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel through the body

Conduction velocity

speed at which the electrical signal is conducted down the axon

Ion channels

tiny protein openings in the axon's membrane

Saltatory conduction

the regenerated electrical impulse at each node "jumps" or skips rapidly from node to node

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

a disease in which the myelin sheath is destroyed, which leads to diminished or a complete loss of neural functioning in those damaged cells

Ions

charged particles

Diffusion

the process of ions moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

Electrostatic pressure

the relative balance of electrical charges when the ions are at rest

Semipermeable

some molecules may freely pass through the membrane while others cannot

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse; negative on the inside and positive on the outside

Axon hillock

the part of the axon closest to the soma

Action potential

the reversal of the electrical charge that travels down the axon to the channels, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters

Propagates

the action potential travels down toward the axon terminals

Hyperpolarization

when the membrane charge goes beyond its original resting potential

All-or-none

neurons are either firing at full strength or not firing at all; If the "fire" messages are great enough compared to the "don't fire" messages, the threshold is crossed and that neuron fires

Synaptic vessels

saclike structures that contain neurotransmitters and are found within the axon terminal

Neurotransmitters

chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell

Synapse (synaptic gap)

microscopic fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one cell and the dendrites or soma of the next cell

Presynaptic membrane

the vesicles at the end of the axon

Postsynaptic membrane

the surface of the dendrite next to the axon

Receptor sites

three-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters

Excitatory effect

various synapses around the nervous system can turn cells on

Inhibitory effect

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing

Acetylcholine (ACh)

The first neurotransmitter to be identified; Found at the synapses between neurons and muscle cells; Stimulates the skeletal muscles to contract

Antagonist

a chemical substance that blocks or reduces the effects of a neurotransmitter

Agonist

a chemical substance that mimics or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter

Dopamine (DA)

a neurotransmitter found in the brain that can have different effects depending on the exact location of its activity

Serotonin (5-HT)

a neurotransmitter originating in the lower part of the brain that can have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect, depending on the particular synapses being affected