UNIT 4 AP EURO Exam - MCQ (Stimulus-Based)

"Your book, highly learned gentleman, which you sent me... reached me only a few hours ago... I should think myself indeed ungrateful if I should not express to you my thanks by this letter. So far I have read only the introduction, but have learned from it in some measure your intentions and congratulate myself on the good fortune of having found such a man as a companion in the exploration of truth. For it is deplorable that there are so few who seek the truth and do not pursue a wrong method of philosophizing. But this is not the place to mourn about the misery of our century but to rejoice with you about such beautiful ideas proving the truth... I would certainly dare to approach the public with my ways of thinking if there were more people of your mind. As this is not the case, I shall refrain from doing so... "

Galileo to Kepler, August 4, 1597

"I received your letter of August 4 on September 1. It was a double pleasure to me. First because I became friends with you, the Italian, and second because of the agreement in which we find ourselves concerning Copernican cosmography... [I] am sure, if your time has allowed it, that you have meanwhile obtained a closer knowledge of my book. And so a great desire has taken hold of me, to learn your judgement. For this is my way , to urge all those to whom I have written to express their candid opinion, Believe me, the sharpest criticism of one single understanding man means much more to me than the thoughtless applause of the great masses. I would, however, have wished that you who have such a keen insight into everything would choose another way to reach your practice aims. By the strength of your personal example you advise us, in a cleverly veiled manner, to go out of the way of general ignorance and warn us against exposing ourselves to the furious attacks of the scholarly crown... Be of good cheer, Galileo, and appear in public. If I am not mistaken there are only a few among the distinguished mathematicians of Europe who would dissociate themselves from us. So great is the power of truth. If Italy seems less suitable for your publication and if you have to expect difficulties there, perhaps Germany will offer us more freedom."

Kepler to Galileo, September 1, 1597

What can best explain the difference in Kepler and Galileo's attitudes about making their discoveries public?

a) Galileo knew that heliocentric theory had previously been denounced by the Church.

b) Kepler's theories of planetary motion did not conflict with theories proposed by the Catholic Church.

c) Kepler, living in Germany was further outside the Church's influence and control.

d) Galileo's theories were unconfirmed, but Kepler had been able to confirm his findings with Tycho Brahe.

"But what was most important about Newton's work was not his particular law of gravity, great as it is, but the universality and unbounded application of that law. The same gravity that caused the apple to fall from a tree also caused the moon to orbit the earth, and these trajectories, and an infinity of others, could be mathematically calculated from equations that the English physicist and mathematician had discovered on his own.

Beneath Newton's ideas of the universality of gravity, in turn, lay the implicit assumption that the physical universe was knowable by man. This was a new idea in the evolution of human self-awareness, a psychological turning point, a liberation, an empowerment. Without this idea we might never have had Newton, Nor would we have had the intellectual and scientific breakthroughs that followed: Lavoisier's discovery of oxygen and the beginnings of modern chemistry, Mendel's seminal work on genetics... Einstein's relativity, Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe, Watson and Crick's unraveling of DNA and countless other scientific discoveries."

Alan Lightman, Professor of Humanities, "In God's Place," The New York Times, September 1999

Newton's ideas as expressed in the excerpt were most influenced by which of the following scientific disciplines or ideas?

a) heliocentric studies

b) anatomical and medical discoveries

c) the study of astrology

d) the notion of an unpredictable universe

"But what was most important about Newton's work was not his particular law of gravity, great as it is, but the universality and unbounded application of that law. The same gravity that caused the apple to fall from a tree also caused the moon to orbit the earth, and these trajectories, and an infinity of others, could be mathematically calculated from equations that the English physicist and mathematician had discovered on his own.

Beneath Newton's ideas of the universality of gravity, in turn, lay the implicit assumption that the physical universe was knowable by man. This was a new idea in the evolution of human self-awareness, a psychological turning point, a liberation, an empowerment. Without this idea we might never have had Newton, Nor would we have had the intellectual and scientific breakthroughs that followed: Lavoisier's discovery of oxygen and the beginnings of modern chemistry, Mendel's seminal work on genetics... Einstein's relativity, Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe, Watson and Crick's unraveling of DNA and countless other scientific discoveries."

Alan Lightman, Professor of Humanities, "In God's Place," The New York Times, September 1999

This excerpt would be most useful to historians as a source of information about which of the following?

a) The influence of classical thought on the Scientific Revolution

b) The impact of mathematics on future scientific study

c) The impact of the universality of gravity on future scientific study

d) The influence of the Renaissance on the Scientific Revolution

Illustration from René Descartes' Treatise of Man, written circa 1630, published posthumously in 1662.

The illustration shows the physical response to a painful stimulus (fire). The sensation of heat at the foot sends a signal to the brain, which causes the arm to move to brush away the fire.

The image demonstrates which of the following regarding scientific advances in early modern Europe?

a) They were made possible by the rediscovery of ancient Greek medical texts during the Renaissance.

b) They used information obtained through dissection to reconceptualize the body as an integrated system.

c) They provided experimental proof of the accuracy of Galen's humoral theory of disease.

d) They were responsible for the sharp drop in mortality from epidemic diseases, such as the plague, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

"But what was most important about Newton's work was not his particular law of gravity, great as it is, but the universality and unbounded application of that law. The same gravity that caused the apple to fall from a tree also caused the moon to orbit the earth, and these trajectories, and an infinity of others, could be mathematically calculated from equations that the English physicist and mathematician had discovered on his own.

Beneath Newton's ideas of the universality of gravity, in turn, lay the implicit assumption that the physical universe was knowable by man. This was a new idea in the evolution of human self-awareness, a psychological turning point, a liberation, an empowerment. Without this idea we might never have had Newton, Nor would we have had the intellectual and scientific breakthroughs that followed: Lavoisier's discovery of oxygen and the beginnings of modern chemistry, Mendel's seminal work on genetics... Einstein's relativity, Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe, Watson and Crick's unraveling of DNA and countless other scientific discoveries."

Alan Lightman, Professor of Humanities, "In God's Place," The New York Times, September 1999

Which of the following represents a later example of the impact that Newton and his fellow scientists had on European life?

a) Advanced military technology

b) The theory of Social Darwinism

c) An increase in the European witch hunts

d) An increased emphasis on reason in European culture

"I think that in discussion of physical problems we ought to begin not from the authority of the scriptural passages but from sense experiences and necessary demonstrations; for the holy Bible and the phenomena of nature proceed alike from the divine Word the former as dictate of the Holy Ghost and the latter as the observant executrix [a female who carries out orders of another] of God's commands...

From this I do not mean to infer that we need not have an extraordinary esteem for the passages of the Holy Scripture. On the contrary, having arrived at any certainties in physics, we ought to utilize these as the most appropriate aids in the true exposition of the Bible and in the investigation of those meanings which are necessarily contained therein, for these must be concordant [in agreement] with the demonstrated truths. I should judge the authority of the Bible was designed to persuade men of those articles and propositions which, surpassing all human reasoning could not be made credible by science, or by any other means than through the very mouth of the Holy Spirit...

But I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who had endowed us with senses, reason, and intellect has intended us to forego their use and by some other means to give us knowledge which we can attain by them. He would not require us to deny sense and reason in physical matters which are set before our eyes and minds by direct experience or necessary demonstrations."

Galileo Galilei, letter to Madame Christina de Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, 1615

This passage most clearly demonstrates the influence of which of the following developments?

a) Christian humanist interest in original translations of the Bible

b) The Protestant Reformation's emphasis on the authority of scripture

c) Renaissance thinkers' reliance on classical Greek and Roman sources

d) The Scientific Revolution's promotion of reasoning and experimentation

Illustration from René Descartes' Treatise of Man, written circa 1630, published posthumously in 1662.

The illustration shows the physical response to a painful stimulus (fire). The sensation of heat at the foot sends a signal to the brain, which causes the arm to move to brush away the fire.

Descartes' understanding of the human body, as shown in the image, is most similar to which of the following?

a) Astrological notions of the impact of celestial bodies on human affairs

b) Einstein's notion of the relativity of time and space

c) Positivist notions about the perfectibility of human society through scientific progress

d) Newton's notion of a mechanistic universe

I think that in discussion of physical problems we ought to begin not from the authority of the scriptural passages but from sense experiences and necessary demonstrations; for the holy Bible and the phenomena of nature proceed alike from the divine Word the former as dictate of the Holy Ghost and the latter as the observant executrix [a female who carries out orders of another] of God's commands...

From this I do not mean to infer that we need not have an extraordinary esteem for the passages of the Holy Scripture. On the contrary, having arrived at any certainties in physics, we ought to utilize these as the most appropriate aids in the true exposition of the Bible and in the investigation of those meanings which are necessarily contained therein, for these must be concordant [in agreement] with the demonstrated truths. I should judge the authority of the Bible was designed to persuade men of those articles and propositions which, surpassing all human reasoning could not be made credible by science, or by any other means than through the very mouth of the Holy Spirit...

But I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who had endowed us with senses, reason, and intellect has intended us to forego their use and by some other means to give us knowledge which we can attain by them. He would not require us to deny sense and reason in physical matters which are set before our eyes and minds by direct experience or necessary demonstrations."

Galileo Galilei, letter to Madame Christina de Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, 1615

This passage best demonstrates which of the following about scientific thinkers in the 17th century?

a) They developed mathematical models to prove scientific ideas

b) They received substantial support from political authorities

c) They continued to hold religious worldviews as they pursued scientific inquiry

d) They rejected the role of divine forces in the universe

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage.

Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear.

So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero that Hicetas had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion."

Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Motions of the Heavenly Orbs, dedication to Pope Paul III, 1543

Copernicus' citation of Cicero and Plutarch was likely intended to counter which of the following ideas?

a) The use of classical authorities to support traditional views of the natural world

b) New conceptions of physical laws of nature formulated by Isaac Newton and others

c) The influence of the new scientific method formulated by Francis Bacon

d) Traditional beliefs in astrology and spiritual forces

"About ten months ago a report reached my ears that a certain Fleming had constructed a spyglass by means of which visible objects, though very distinct from the eye of the observer, were distinctly seen as if nearby... A few days later the report was confirmed to me in a letter from a noble Frenchman at Paris, Jacques Badovere, which caused me to apply myself wholeheartedly to inquire into the means by which I might arrive at this invention of a similar instrument. This I did shortly afterwards... Finally, sparing neither labor nor expense, I succeeded in constructing for myself so excellent an instrument that objects seen by means of it appeared nearly one thousand times larger and over thirty times closer than when regarded without natural vision.

Now let us review the observations made during the past two months, once more inviting the attention of all who are eager for true philosophy to the first steps of such important contemplations. Let us us peak first of that surface of the moon which faces us. For greater clarity I distinguish two parts of this surface, a lighter and a darker; the lighter part seems to surround and to pervade the whole hemisphere, while the darker part discolors the moon's surface like a kind of cloud, and makes it appear covered with spots... From observation of these spots repeated many times I have been led to the pinion and conviction that the surface of the moon is not smooth, uniform, and precisely as spherical as a great number of philosophers believe it (and other heavenly bodies) to be, but it is uneven, rough, and full of cavities and prominences, being not unlike the face of the earth, relieved by chains of mountains and deep valleys."

— Galileo Galilei,The Starry Messenger

Galileo's ideas about a heliocentric view of the universe would have been most influenced by which of the following scientists and thinkers?

a) Rene Descartes

b) Aristotle

c) Francis Bacon

d) Copernicus

"Your book, highly learned gentleman, which you sent me... reached me only a few hours ago... I should think myself indeed ungrateful if I should not express to you my thanks by this letter. So far I have read only the introduction, but have learned from it in some measure your intentions and congratulate myself on the good fortune of having found such a man as a companion in the exploration of truth. For it is deplorable that there are so few who seek the truth and do not pursue a wrong method of philosophizing. But this is not the place to mourn about the misery of our century but to rejoice with you about such beautiful ideas proving the truth... I would certainly dare to approach the public with my ways of thinking if there were more people of your mind. As this is not the case, I shall refrain from doing so... "

Galileo to Kepler, August 4, 1597

"I received your letter of August 4 on September 1. It was a double pleasure to me. First because I became friends with you, the Italian, and second because of the agreement in which we find ourselves concerning Copernican cosmography... [I] am sure, if your time has allowed it, that you have meanwhile obtained a closer knowledge of my book. And so a great desire has taken hold of me, to learn your judgement. For this is my way , to urge all those to whom I have written to express their candid opinion, Believe me, the sharpest criticism of one single understanding man means much more to me than the thoughtless applause of the great masses. I would, however, have wished that you who have such a keen insight into everything would choose another way to reach your practice aims. By the strength of your personal example you advise us, in a cleverly veiled manner, to go out of the way of general ignorance and warn us against exposing ourselves to the furious attacks of the scholarly crown... Be of good cheer, Galileo, and appear in public. If I am not mistaken there are only a few among the distinguished mathematicians of Europe who would dissociate themselves from us. So great is the power of truth. If Italy seems less suitable for your publication and if you have to expect difficulties there, perhaps Germany will offer us more freedom."

Kepler to Galileo, September 1, 1597

Both Galileo and Kepler's research supported

a) The theory that the Earth was equidistant from the moon and the sun, as stated in Greek texts by Heraclides and Pontus.

b) The theory that an object at rest remains at rest, as stated in Aristotelian conception.

c) The theory that the sun revolved around the planets, as developed by Pythagorean theorem.

d) The theory that the sun was the center of the universe, as developed by Copernicus.

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage.

Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear.

So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero that Hicetas had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion."

*Classical writers and philosophers

Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Motions of the Heavenly Orbs, dedication to Pope Paul III, 1543

Which of the following would most directly undermine Copernicus' hope that the papacy would be receptive to his arguments?

a) The establishment of the Inquisition to suppress heresy

b) The increase in accusations of witchcraft in the late 1500s

c) The trial of Galileo for publishing heretical works

d) The creation of the Index of Prohibited Books

As every individual, therefore, endeavors as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of thesociety as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. . . He intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. . . The statesman, who should attempt to direct private people in what manner they ought to employ their capitals, would not only load himself with a most unnecessary attention, but assume an authority which could safely be trusted, not only to no single person, but to no council or senate whatever, and which would nowhere be so dangerous as in the hands of a man who had folly and presumption enough to fancy himself fifit to exercise it.

Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776

According to Adam Smith, the "invisible hand" would

a) reconcile selfish individual interests with general economic benefits

b) guide absolute monarchs to embrace liberal reforms

c) cause population to exceed available food supplies

d) provide checks and balances among the branches of government

"Peter the Great was allowed to engage several English engineers into his service, as he had done in Holland; but, over and above engineers, he engaged likewise some mathematicians, which he would not so easily have found in Amsterdam. Ferguson, a Scotchman, an excellent geometrician, entered into his service, and was the first person who brought arithmetic into use in the exchequer in Russia, where before that time, they made use only of the Tartarian method of reckoning, with balls strung upon a wire [an abacus]....He took with him two young students from a mathematical school, and this was the beginning of the marine academy.... Peter made himself proficient in astronomy, [and] he perfectly well understood the motions of the heavenly bodies, as well as the laws of gravitation, by which they are directed. This force, now so evidently demonstrated, and before the time of the great Newton so little known, by which all the planets gravitate towards each other, and which retain them in their orbits, had already become familiar to a sovereign of Russia, while other countries amused themselves with imaginary theories, and, in Galileo's nation, one set of ignorant persons ordered others, as ignorant, to believe the earth to be immovable."

Voltaire, History of the Russian Empire Under Peter the Great, 1759, discussing Tsar Peter I's Grand Embassy, which traveled to western Europe at the end of the seventeenth century

Which of the following best explains the point of view toward Peter the Great that Voltaire expresses in the passage?

a) Voltaire admired rulers who governed through principles of enlightened absolutism.

b) Voltaire's Deist philosophy made him an admirer of Peter the Great's religious policies in Russia.

c) Voltaire admired non-European cultures.

d) Voltaire admired Peter the Great's development of Russia's economy along mercantilist principles.

"A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature; and as a firm and unalterable experience has established these laws, as proof against a miracle, from the very nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can be possibly imagined. Why is it more than probable, that all men must die... that fire consumes wood and is extinguished by water; unless it be, that these events are found agreeable to the laws of nature, and there is required a violation of these laws, or in other words, a miracle to prevent them? Nothing is esteemed a miracle, if it ever happens in the common course of nature. It is no miracle that a man, seemingly in good health, should die on a sudden: because such a kind of death, thought more unusual than any other, has yet frequently been observed to happen. But it is a miracle that a dead man should come to life; because that has never been observed in any age or country. There must, therefore, be a uniform experience against every miraculous event; otherwise the event would not merit that appellation."

David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 1748

The philosophical theory that is the underlying basis of this passage is known as

a) Skepticism

b) Absolutism

c) Mercantilism

d) Humanism

"Peter the Great was allowed to engage several English engineers into his service, as he had done in Holland; but, over and above engineers, he engaged likewise some mathematicians, which he would not so easily have found in Amsterdam. Ferguson, a Scotchman, an excellent geometrician, entered into his service, and was the first person who brought arithmetic into use in the exchequer in Russia, where before that time, they made use only of the Tartarian method of reckoning, with balls strung upon a wire [an abacus]....He took with him two young students from a mathematical school, and this was the beginning of the marine academy.... Peter made himself proficient in astronomy, [and] he perfectly well understood the motions of the heavenly bodies, as well as the laws of gravitation, by which they are directed. This force, now so evidently demonstrated, and before the time of the great Newton so little known, by which all the planets gravitate towards each other, and which retain them in their orbits, had already become familiar to a sovereign of Russia, while other countries amused themselves with imaginary theories, and, in Galileo's nation, one set of ignorant persons ordered others, as ignorant, to believe the earth to be immovable."

Voltaire, History of the Russian Empire Under Peter the Great, 1759, discussing Tsar Peter I's Grand Embassy, which traveled to western Europeat the end of the seventeenth century

Voltaire's discussion of Peter the Great's acceptance of Newtonian physics is best understood as a critique of which of the following?

a) The efforts of religious and secular authorities to suppress scientific development

b) The persistence of folk stories and oral traditions

c) The reliance of Renaissance thinkers on classical Greek and Roman texts

d) The Enlightenment belief in the rational order of the universe

"A well conducted government must have an underlying concept so well integrated that it could be likened to a system of philosophy. All actions taken must be well reasoned, and all financial, political, and military matters must flow towards one goal: which is the strengthening of the state and the furthering of its power. However, such a system can flow but from a single brain, and this must be that of the sovereign. Laziness, hedonism, and imbecility, these are the causes which restrain princes in working at the noble task of bringing happiness to their subjects . . . a sovereign is not elevated to his high position, supreme power has not been confined to him, in order that he may live in lazy luxury, enriching himself by the labor of the people, being happy while everyone else suffers. . . .

You can see, without doubt, how important it is that the King of Prussia govern personally. Just as it would have been impossible for Newton to arrive at his system of gravity if he had worked in harness with Leibnitz and Descartes, so a system of politics cannot be arrived at and continued if it has not sprung from a single brain. . . . All parts of the government are inexorably linked with each other. Finance, politics, and military affairs are inseparable; it does not suffice that one will be well administered; they all must be.

Catholics, Lutherans, Reformed, Jews, and other Christian sects live in this state, and live together in peace: if the sovereign, moved by a mistaken zeal, declares himself for one religion or another, parties will spring up, heated disputes ensue, little by little persecutions will commence and, in the end, the religion persecuted will leave the fatherland and millions of subjects will enrich our neighbors by their skill and industry."

Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, Political Testament, 1752

Frederick's testament was most likely intended to justify which of the following?

a) Prussia's adoption of enlightened absolutism

b) Prussia's embrace of Lutheranism

c) Frederick's military campaigns against Austria

d) Frederick's sponsorship of Enlightenment philosophes

"He has passed over in silence the massacre of six hundred inhabitants of Valtelina, men, women, and children, who were murdered by the Catholics... I will not say it was with the consent and assistance of the archbishop of Milan... who was made a saint. Some passionate writers have averred this fact, which I am very far from believing; but I say, there is scarce any city or borough in Europe where blood has not been spilt for religious quarrels; I say that the human species has been perceptibly diminished; because women and girls were massacred as well as men; I say, that Europe would have had a third larger population, if there had been no theological disputes. In fine, I say, that so far from forgetting these abominable times, we should frequently take a view of them, to inspire an eternal horror for them; and that it is for our age to make reparation by toleration, for this long collection of crimes, which has taken place through the want of toleration, during sixteen barbarous centuries."

Voltaire, The Ignorant Philosopher, eighteenth century

Voltaire's analysis most directly reflects his philosophy about which of the following issues during the Enlightenment era?

a) Religious toleration

b) The rise of deism

c) An increase in atheism

d) An increase in warfare

"If the [Catholic clergy], so long paid and honored for abusing the human species, ordered us today to believe that...the world is immovable on its foundations,... that the tides are not a natural effect of gravitation, that the rainbow is not formed by the refraction and the reflection of rays of light, and so on, and if they based their [arguments] on passages poorly understood from the Holy Bible, how would educated men regard these commands? And if they used force and persecution to enforce their insolent stupidity, would the term 'wild beasts' seem too extreme [to describe them]?...

This little globe of ours, which is no more than a point, rolls, together with many other globes, in that immensity of space in which we are lost. Man, who is an animal about five feet high, is certainly a very inconsiderable part of the creation; but one of those hardly visible beings says to another of the same kind who inhabits another spot on the globe: 'Listen to me, for the God of all these worlds has enlightened me. There are about nine hundred millions of us little insects who inhabit the earth, but my ant-hill alone is cherished by God who holds all the rest in horror for all eternity; those who live with me upon my spot will alone be happy, and all the rest eternally wretched.' . . . What madman could have made so ridiculous a speech?"

Voltaire, A Treatise on Toleration, 1763

The ideas expressed in the passage best illustrate which of the following about Enlightenment intellectuals?

a) Some of them believed that the discoveries of new science warranted new approaches to social and cultural issues.

b) Some of them were accomplished scientists in their own right who made important discoveries.

c) Some of them relied on new venues for spreading their ideas, such as salons and mass-produced inexpensive pamphlets.

d) Some of them rejected religious belief altogether and turned to atheism.

"A well conducted government must have an underlying concept so well integrated that it could be likened to a system of philosophy. All actions taken must be well reasoned, and all financial, political, and military matters must flow towards one goal: which is the strengthening of the state and the furthering of its power. However, such a system can flow but from a single brain, and this must be that of the sovereign. Laziness, hedonism, and imbecility, these are the causes which restrain princes in working at the noble task of bringing happiness to their subjects . . . a sovereign is not elevated to his high position, supreme power has not been confined to him, in order that he may live in lazy luxury, enriching himself by the labor of the people, being happy while everyone else suffers. . . .

You can see, without doubt, how important it is that the King of Prussia govern personally. Just as it would have been impossible for Newton to arrive at his system of gravity if he had worked in harness with Leibnitz and Descartes, so a system of politics cannot be arrived at and continued if it has not sprung from a single brain. . . . All parts of the government are inexorably linked with each other. Finance, politics, and military affairs are inseparable; it does not suffice that one will be well administered; they all must be.

Catholics, Lutherans, Reformed, Jews, and other Christian sects live in this state, and live together in peace: if the sovereign, moved by a mistaken zeal, declares himself for one religion or another, parties will spring up, heated disputes ensue, little by little persecutions will commence and, in the end, the religion persecuted will leave the fatherland and millions of subjects will enrich our neighbors by their skill and industry."

Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, Political Testament, 1752

Frederick's concerns expressed in the passage could best be understood as an argument against which of the following developments at the time he wrote his Political Testament?

a) An increasing emphasis on popular sovereignty in European political thought

b) Increasing political, economic, and military competition between German states

c) The decline of the Holy Roman Empire as a political force

d) The declining influence of the Catholic Church on European state politics

"Her circle met daily from five o' clock until nine in the evening. There we were sure to find choice men of all orders in the State, the Church, the Court-- military men, foreigners, and the most distinguished men of letters... Politics, religion, philosophy, anecdotes, news, nothing was excluded from the conversation, and, thanks to her care, the most trivial little narrative gained, as naturally as possible, the place and notice it deserved. News of all kinds was gathered there in its first freshness."

Baron de Grimm, Historical and Literary Memoirs and Anecdotes, 1815

"Whither shall a person, wearied with hard study, or the laborious turmoils of a tedious day, repair to refresh himself? Or where can young gentlemen, or shop-keepers, more innocently and advantageously spend an hour or two in the evening, than at a coffee house? Where they sahll be sure to meet company, and, by the custom of the house, not such as at other places, stingy and reserved to themselves, but free and communicative; where every man may... begin his story, and propose to, or answer another, as he thinks fit."

"In Praise of Coffee-houses," 1675

Which of the following characteristics applied to both coffeehouses and salons?

a) They were important aspects of the Enlightenment

b) They were intended only for entertainment

c) They were designed for all people to attend

d) They focused only on political discussions

Engraving depicting Joseph II plowing the field during a visit to Bohemian farmer Andreas Trnka on August 19, 1796

The engraving above depicts the Austrian Emperor Joseph II (1780-1790) as

a) an Enlightened monarch interested in methods of improving productivity

b) a democratic representative of the common people

c) the "first servant of the state" who encouraged Enlightenment philosophes

d) an advocate of the reeducation of the aristocracy through forced agricultural labor

Henri Testelin, Colbert Presenting the Members of the Royal Academy of Sciences to Louis XIV in 1667

All of the following are true about scientific societies except

Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, Political Testament, 1752

The third paragraph was most likely intended to argue in favor of which of the following?

Mary Wollstonecraft, Vindications of the Rights of Women, 1792

All of the following statements about Mary Wollstonecraft are true except

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile, 1762

Rousseau's ideas about women's role in society were influenced by

Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776

Which of the following activities did Adam Smith believe was most appropriate for a national government?

Antoine to Watteau, Return from Cythera, 1717

Which of the following correctly identifies the style of Watteau's Return from Cythera?

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage.

Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear.

So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero that Hicetas had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion."

*Classical writers and philosophers

Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Motions of the Heavenly Orbs, dedication to Pope Paul III, 1543

Which of the following later developments would best support Copernicus' claim regarding the motion of the spheres?

a) Galileo's observations of sunspots as well as craters on the moon

b) Kepler's formulation of the laws of planetary motion

c) Brahe's assertion that novas were not comets, but in fact newly visible stars

d) Newton's research into optical refraction

"... in the education of women, the cultivation of the understanding is always subordinate to the acquirement of some corporeal accomplishment .... till women are more rationally educated, the progress of human virtue and improvement in knowledge must receive continual checks....It is vain to expect virtue from women till they are, in some degree, independent of men ... Whilst they are absolutely dependent on their husbands they will be cunning, mean, and selfish, and the men who can be gratified by the fawning fondness of spaniel-like affection, have not much delicacy, for love is not to be bought, in any sense of the words, its silken wings are instantly shrivelled up when any thing beside a return in kind is sought. ... to improve both sexes they ought, not only in private families, but in public schools, to be educated together. If marriage be the cement of society, mankind should all be educated after the same model..."

Mary Wollstonecraft,A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792

Wollstonecraft's ideas, as expressed in the above passage, were most likely a response to the works of

a) Rousseau, in which he argued for the exclusion of women from political life.

b) Voltaire, in which he advocated for women's rights and privileges.

c) Locke, who declared that all people were born as blank slates, ready to learn.

d) Diderot, who wrote against the education of women in his Encyclopedie.

"A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature; and as a firm and unalterable experience has established these laws, as proof against a miracle, from the very nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can be possibly imagined. Why is it more than probable, that all men must die... that fire consumes wood and is extinguished by water; unless it be, that these events are found agreeable to the laws of nature, and there is required a violation of these laws, or in other words, a miracle to prevent them? Nothing is esteemed a miracle, if it ever happens in the common course of nature. It is no miracle that a man, seemingly in good health, should die on a sudden: because such a kind of death, thought more unusual than any other, has yet frequently been observed to happen. But it is a miracle that a dead man should come to life; because that has never been observed in any age or country. There must, therefore, be a uniform experience against every miraculous event; otherwise the event would not merit that appellation."

David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 1748

On what basis did David Hume reject the existence of miracles?

a) The permanent laws of nature contradict miracles

b) Miracles are too unusual to be true

c) Miracles are a product of an attempt to deceive people

d) Miracles are based on religion, not science

"The Making of Needles," from the Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts, published in France between 1751 and 1772

Caption states: "Needles: Cutting from steel wire (fig. 1), flattening end (fig. 4), stamping eye (fig. 2), punching eye (fig. 3), filing eye and pointing end (fig. 7), polishing (fig. 8). Specific monotonous task. Process virtually unchanged for 200 years."

Which of the following was the likely purpose of the publication the image appeared in?

a) To spread Enlightenment principles

b) To advocate for socialist revolution

c) To encourage French nationalism

d) To appeal to new consumer markets