Geography - Physical Landscapes in the UK

Give me examples of UK rivers and their location.

• River Severn flows through Wales and England

• River Thames flows through Southern England

• River Tees flows through North Eastern England

What are some features of constructive waves?

• Low frequency

• Long wavelength

• Strong swash and weak backswash

• Deposits material on the beach

• Calm sea conditions

What are some features of destructive waves?

• High frequency

• Short wavelength

• Weak swash, strong backswash

• Erodes and removes material from the beach

• Associated with stormy sea conditions

What’s mechanical weathering?

Breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition.

How does freeze-thaw weathering work?

• Water collects in the cracks of rocks

• At night, water freezes and expands, enlarging the cracks

• During the day, the temperature rises causing ice the thaw and water seeps deeper in the cracks

• This cycle repeats until it breaks apart the rock

• Fragments that break off accumulate at the bottom of the cliff forming scree.

What’s chemical weathering?

Alters the composition of rocks and minerals.

How does carbonation work?

• Rainwater absorbs CO2 from the air becoming slightly acidic.

• When rain falls onto alkaline rocks, it will cause a chemical reaction and the rock will slowly dissolve.

How does rockfall shape the coast?

• Fragments of rock break away from the cliff face due to freeze-thaw weathering, failing to the bottom and accumulating as scree.

How does slumping shape the coast?

• Soft rock sits on top of impermeable rock

• Rainfall saturates the soft rock, increasing its weight

• Added weight causes cliff the gradually slump

• This occurs in stages due to the curved shape of impermeable rock

• Water acts as a lubricant, facilitating the movement

How does sliding shape the coast?

• Heavy rainfall saturates cliff materials, acting as a lubricant. Large volumes of rock and soil suddenly slide down in a straight line.

How does the process of hydraulic action work?

Waves hit the shore, forcing water into rock cracks. Compressed air widens, causing rocks to break off and fall into water.

How does the process of abrasion work?

Waves hurl loose rocks at the cliff face, repeatedly wearing it away and chipping off pieces.

How does the process of attrition work?

Waves swirl loose sediment from hydraulic action, causing constant collisions that wear it into smaller rounder pieces.

How does longshore drift transport sediment along the coast?

• Process of sediment movement along a coast

• Waves approach the shore at the angle of the prevailing wind

• Swash moves materials up at the beach at an angle

• Backswash pulls materials straight down

• Overtime material zigzags along the coast

Why does deposition occur?

Deposition occurs when more sediment stays than is removed, typically due to:

1. Constructive waves

2. Low-energy, sheltered bays

3. Large, flat beaches weakening waves

4. Material trapped behind spits

5. Coastal engineering (e.g., groynes) trapping sediment

What is hard and soft rock?

Hard rock are more resistant to erosion while soft rocks erode faster.

What are discordant and concordant coastlines?

• Discordant coastlines occurs when bands of rock are parallel to the coastline.

• Concordant coastlines occur when bands of rock are parallel to the coastline

How are headlands and bays formed?

• Headlands and bays form on discordant coasts with alternating hard and soft rock bands.

• Soft rock erodes faster due to processes like hydraulic action which creates bays

• Harder rock resists erosion forming headlands

How are cliff and wave-cut platforms formed?

• Erosion processes erodes the base of a cliff creating a notch.

• Weathering weakens the cliff face, making it more susceptible to collapse

• As notched sections become unstable, it falls into the sea causing the cliff to gradually retreat

• This retreat leaves behind a wavecut platform

How are caves, arches and stacks formed?

• Waves attack weak points in cliffs eroding the rock through hydraulic action and abrasion, which eventually creates a cave

• As caves on either side of a headland erode inwards, they meet to form a hole that becomes an arch.

• The roof of the arch weakens and collapses, leaving behind a pillar of rock known as a stack.

How are beaches formed?

• Beaches are located on coasts between the high water mark and the low water mark.

• They are formed by constructive waves that deposit materials like sand and shingle.

• Sandy beaches are flat and wide with small particles that can be moved down the beach by weak backwash, resulting in a long gentle slope.

• In contrast, shingle beaches are steep and narrow because the heavy shingle particles are too heavy for the weak backwash to remove, allowing them to accumulate and create a steep slope.

How are sand dunes formed?

• Sand dunes are formed when wind moves sand deposited by longshore drift up to the beach, beyond the high water mark.

• Obstacles such as driftwood and rocks can decrease wind speed, leading to sand deposition.

• As sand accumulates, it is colonised by plants, forming small embryo dunes.

• Vegetation like marram grass establishes itself, further stabilising the dunes.

• Over time the older dunes migrate inland and can reach heights of up to 10 meters, while new embryo dunes continue to form near the beach

How is a spit formed?

• Spits form when longshore drift deposits sediment along the coast where the shoreline changes shape

• This is because there are often counter currents and a loss of velocity in the water

• The deposits of material continues to be deposited

• A recurved end may form due to winds

• Salt marshes develop in sheltered areas behind the spit

• Sand dunes form along the spit, strengthened by vegetation

• Strong storms can potentially destroy spits

How are bars formed?

• A bar is a spit that forms across two headlands, enclosing a bay

• It grows through deposition but lacks a recurved end due to absence of counter currents.

• This enclosed bay becomes a lagoon cut off from the sea

• This lagoon may evolve into a salt marsh.

Describe the location and characteristics of Flamborough Head.

• At the northern end of the Holderness coast lies Flamborough Head, a prominent chalk headland resistant to erosion.

• This area showcases classic erosional features: caves, arches, stacks, wave-cut platforms (formed near high tide levels due to increased abrasion).

What are the main features of the Holderness Cliffs?

• South of Flamborough Head, the coastline is dominated by boulder clay cliffs, which are much less resistant to erosion:

• rapidly eroding cliffs (retreating at an average rate of 2 meters per year), wave-cut notches, slumps.

What is Spurn Point and what features does it have?

• At the southern end of the Holderness coast,

• Spurn Point is the most prominent depositional feature: spit, salt marsh, sand dunes.

Describe the beaches along the Holderness coast, including Hornsea Beach.

• Along the Holderness coast, several beaches have formed through deposition:

• Hornsea Beach (over 2 kilometers long).

What are the benefits and costs of using sea walls to protect the coastline from erosion?

• Strong protection against erosion and flooding

• Safeguards valuable infrastructure

• High construction costs (£700 to £5000 per meter)

• Significant maintainance required

What are the benefits and costs of using rock armour to protect the coastline from erosion?

• Effective in high-energy waves

• More natural appearance than concrete structure

• High initial construction costs

• Can require large amounts of rocks which may not be locally sources

What are the benefits and costs of using gabions to protect the coastline from erosion?

• Flexible and adaptable to uneven surfaces

• Relatively inexpensive compared to other solutions

• Susceptible to damage from strong waves

• May require regular maintaiance

What are the benefits and costs of using groynes to protect the coastline from erosion?

• Helps retain beach materials and build wider beaches

• Simple construction process

• Can cause erosion down drift

• May be visually unappealing and hazardous to swimmers

What are the benefits and costs of using beach nourishment and reprofiling to protect the coastline from erosion?

• Reduces coastal erosion by adding sediment to beach

• Maintains natural beach landscape

• Can harm wildlife and alter natural habitats

• High maintenance as beaches require periodic renourishment due to ongoing erosion

What are the benefits and costs of using dune regeneration to protect the coastline from erosion?

• Dunes act as a barrier against stporms reducing flooding and erosion

• Provides valuable habitats for plants and animals

• Takes 1 to 5 years to implementation

• Fences off large areas of the beach affecting tourism

What are the management strategy in the Holderness?

• In 1992 a £2.1 million scheme was implemented at Mappleton.

• Two rock groynes, rock armour and beach nourishment

What was the resulting effects and conflicts of the coastal management scheme in the Holderness?

• The management scheme has interfered with natural longshore drift, leading to the increased erosion south of Mapleton. Farms and businesses at the south are at increased risk

• Maintenance costs are expensive

• Some management strategies have negatively affected wildlife

What was the reason of management in the Holderness?

• Holderness coast is eroding at an average rate of 2 meters per year, making it the fastest eroding coastline in Europe

• Over 50 properties in Mapleton is under threat

• Valuable assets like farms and businesses were under threat.

What’s the characteristics of long profile of a river?

• Concave shape from source to mouth

• Steep gradient near source, gradually becoming gentler downstream

• Shaped by varying rates of vertical and lateral erosion along the course

What’s the characteristics of cross profile of a river?

• Upper course: Narrow, deep V-shaped valley with steep sides

• Middle course: Wider, shallower valley with developing floodplain

• Lower course: Very wide, flat valley floor with extensive floodplain

What are some characteristics of the channel of a river?

• Width and depth generally increase downstream

• Channel becomes less steep and rough

• Velocity tends to increase overall

How does traction transport sediment?

• Large particles are pushed along the sea bed by the force of water

How does saltation transport sediment?

• Pebble sized particles are bounced along the sea bed by the force of water

How does suspension transport sediment?

• Small particles are carried in the water

How does solution transport sediment?

• Dissolved materials are carried along the water

When does deposition occur in rivers?

• Occurs when river velocity decreases

• River loses energy to carry sediment

Where does deposition occur in rivers?

• In the upper course:

• Larger rocks deposited

• Short distance transport

• Mainly by traction (rolling along the riverbed)

• In lower course:

• Finer sediment carried further

• Mostly transported in suspension

• Deposited on river bed or banks

• Occurs where velocity slows due to friction

How does rivers get eroded?

• Lateral erosion- wearing away of the river banks. It will widen the channel

• Vertical erosion- wearing away of the river bed. It will deepen the channel

How are waterfalls formed?

• Develop where a band of hard rock overlies softer rock

• The river erodes the softer rock more quickly, creating a notch

• Water flows faster over the notch, increasing erosion

• Hydraulic action and abrasion form a plunge pool at the base

• Undercutting of the hard rock occurs

• The overhanging hard rock eventually collapses

• The process repeats, causing the waterfall to retreat upstream

How are interlocking spurs formed?

• Occur in the upper course of a river where the gradient is steep

• The river flows around resistant rock outcrops, creating a winding path

• Vertical erosion dominates, deepening the valley

• Lateral erosion is minimal, leaving projecting spurs of land

How are gorges formed?

• Result from the retreat of a waterfall over time

• As the waterfall erodes backward, it leaves a deep, narrow channel

• Vertical erosion deepens the gorge

• Weathering and mass movement widen the gorge slightly

How are meanders formed?

• Initial irregularities in the river channel cause variations in flow velocity

• Faster flow on the outside of bends leads to erosion (hydraulic action and abrasion)

• Slower flow on the inside of bends results in deposition

• Erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank cause the meander to migrate laterally and downstream

How are ox-bow lakes formed?

• Continued erosion causes meander loops to become more pronounced

• The neck of the meander narrows as erosion continues on both sides

• During high flow events (e.g., floods), the river may cut through the narrow neck

• The new straighter channel is established, bypassing the meander loop

• Deposition seals off the old meander loop, creating an ox-bow lake

How are levees formed?

• During floods, river overflows its banks

• Velocity decreases due to increased friction with the floodplain

• Coarser, heavier sediment is deposited closest to the river channel

• Finer material is carried further onto the floodplain

• Over time, repeated flooding builds up raised banks (levees)

How are flood plains formed?

• Lateral erosion widens the valley in the middle and lower course

• During floods, water spreads across the valley floor

• As velocity decreases, sediment is deposited

• Fine silt and sand are spread across the flood plain

• Repeated flooding builds up layers of alluvium

How are estuaries formed?

• River enters the sea, velocity decreases

• Sediment is deposited, forming mudflats and salt marshes

• Tidal action redistributes sediment

• Mixing of fresh and salt water causes flocculation of clay particles

• Deposition of fine sediment in sheltered areas

What’s in the upper course of River Tees?

• The upper course has hard impermeable rocks. Here, vertical erosion has formed a V-shaped valley.

• The UK's largest waterfall by volume when in full flow is located in the upper course. An area of hard rock is located above a layer of soft rocks and together they create this impressive waterfall.

Where is River Tees located?

The River Tees is located in the north of England. The source of the River Tees is located in the Pennines and it flows east to its mouth where the river joins the North Sea.

What’s in the middle course of River Tees?

• As the River Tees starts to erode sideways (lateral erosion), it forms meanders. These can be identified in the middle course near Barnard Castle.

What’s in the lower course of River Tees?

• Near Yarm, the meanders in the lower course are much larger, and oxbow lakes have formed. In this area there are also levees which have formed when the river has flooded.

• The River Tees has a very large estuary with mudflats and sandbanks which supports wildlife in the area. Sites such as Seal Sands are protected areas.

What are factors that affect flood risk?

• Precipitation

• Geology

• Relief

• Land use (human)

How does precipitation increase flood risk?

• Intensity, duration, and frequency of rainfall

• Snowmelt rates

• Higher precipitation increases flood risk

How does geology increase flood risk?

• Permeability of bedrock and soil

• Impermeable surfaces increase surface runoff

• Permeable geology allows greater infiltration, reducing flood risk

How does relief increase flood risk?

• Steep slopes promote rapid runoff

• Flat areas may lead to ponding and slower drainage

• Valley shape affects flood propagation

How does land use increase flood risk?

• Urbanization increases impermeable surfaces, reducing infiltration

• Deforestation reduces interception and increases runoff

• Agricultural practices can compact soil, reducing infiltration

What are some management strategies of river landscapes?

• Dams and reservoirs

• Straightening

• Embankments

• Flood relief channel

• Flood warnings and preparation

• Flood plain zoning

• Planting trees and river restoration

What are the costs and benefits of dams and reservoirs?

• Control water flow and reduce flood risk downstream

• Can generate hydroelectric power

• Provide water supply for irrigation and domestic use

• Expensive to construct and maintain

• Disrupt natural river ecosystems

• Can cause displacement of local communities

What are the costs and benefits of straightening?

• Increases channel efficiency, moving water downstream faster

• Reduces local flood risk

• Increases flood risk downstream

• Damages river habitats and biodiversity

• Can lead to increased erosion

What are the costs and benefits of embankment?

• Increases channel capacity

• Protects adjacent land from flooding

• Can be expensive to construct and maintain

• May increase flood risk downstream

• Can be visually unappealing

What are the costs and benefits of flood relief channel?

• Diverts excess water away from high-risk areas

• Can be used for recreation when dry

• Expensive to construct

• Requires land acquisition

• May only be used infrequently

What are the costs and benefits of flood warnings and preparation?

• Low cost

• Reduces risk to life and property

• Increases community resilience

• Requires ongoing maintenance of warning systems

• Effectiveness depends on public response

What are the costs and benefits of floodplain zoning?

• Prevents development in high-risk areas

• Low cost to implement

• Maintains natural flood storage

• May limit economic development opportunities

• Can be politically challenging to implement

What are the costs and benefits of planting trees?

• Increases interception and reduces runoff

• Improves biodiversity and carbon sequestration

• Relatively low cost

• Takes time to become effective

• May reduce agricultural land availability

What are the costs and benefits of river restoration?

• Improves natural flood management

• Enhances biodiversity and habitats

• Can improve water quality

• Can be expensive initially

• May require ongoing maintenance

• May reduce land available for other uses

What are some social, economic and environmental issues of Jubilee River?

• Social: Building of the schemes may have caused temporary inconvenience to local residents

• Economic: £18.5 million costs, £100 million estimated benefits

• Increased property values

• Environmental : Some habitat destruction

• Looks unnatural

What was the management scheme to help Jubilee River not to flood?

• Flood storage reservoirs (3 million m³ capacity )

• 3km embankment

• Flood walls around businesses

Why was the management schemes in Jubilee River required?

• The scheme was required because there was significant flooding in 1998 and 2007.

• £12.5 million damage in 1998 in Banbury