Argumentation Exam #2

categorical argument

an argument composed of three categorical statements -- two statements that are its reasons, or premises, and one that is its conclusion

categorical statement

establishes a relationship between 2 categories of objects

universal affirmative

All S is P (D U)

universal negative

No S is P (D D)

particular affirmative

Some S are P (U U)

particular negative

Some S are not P (U D)

euphemism

less objectionable and often less accurate terms exchanged for harsh, condemning, or emotionally charged term

reclassification

o strategic placement of an object, person, or idea under a new heading

labeling

characterizing a person, group, idea, or institution by introducing a suggestive name or term

common usage

the meaning of a term in everyday language

etymology

the origin of a word

paradigm case

a representative example of the term or category in question; a typical member that defines the entire category

original intent

meaning of a word or phrase in its original context, or what the initial definer of a term meant by it

authority

individuals' expert knowledge might qualify them to advance definitions

ambiguity

more than one meaning of a word or phrase in a single context

equivocation

changing meaning of a key term in the course of an argument

redundancy

unnecessary repetition of an idea or term

mixed metaphor

linguistic combination of images that do not belong together

literal analogy

direct comparison between two allegedly similar items or cases

evidence case

a familiar or widely established instance that is used as the basis for the argument

conclusion case

an instance in the argument about which a claim is being advanced

a fortiori argument

asserts that what is true of its evidence is even more/less likely to be true of its conclusion case

judicial analogy

insists on similar treatment for people, ideas, or institutions in similar circumstances

metaphors/figurative analogy

comparison between things that are not of the same type, that come from different realms of experience

arguments from example

draws a conclusion about an entire class of objects or events based on a particular instance or a limited # of cases

metonymy

use of one object to represent another associated object

narrative argument

stories used as arguments to influence audience

arguments advancing hypothesis

• Observation, question, hypothesis, experiment

• Conditional: sufficient, consistent w/ analogous cases

arguments from sign

• Fallible - an effect with more than one possible cause, though one cause is typical

• Infallible - an effect that is virtually always and only accompanies a particular cause

arguments for cause by analogy

dissimilarity advanced as cause

arguments for cause by enumerations

Eliminate potential cases

arguments generalizing about cause

• Findings of sample is cause of observed effect in population

• Experiment/control groups are analogous except for variable

pragmatic argument

an argument that recommends or discourages a course of action on the basis of its practical consequences

principle argument

affirms that we should abide by values, principles, and duties, and avoid actions that violate the same

quantity argument

affirms numerical considerations as an index of significance

quality argument

affirms the inherent value in the unique, the beautiful, the rare, or the unusual

essential nature argument

An argument that focuses on the "essence" or unchanging nature of an organization, object, person, entity, or work of art

genetic argument

arguments that look to origins as evidence of essential nature

argument from intent

an argument that affirms that the meaning or essential nature of an object or document is revealed in the intended meaning of its authors or designers

argument from function

An argument that locates the essential nature of an object, event, or institution in its social or natural function

person/act argument

an argument that looks to a person's or group's acts to find the true nature or character of that individual or group

visual argument

arguments conveyed through images or objects rather than words

activism

advocating through public action to draw attention to a persistent problem that has not yielded to conventional forms of argument alone

fallacy

argument that is invalid or otherwise so seriously flawed as to render it unreliable

arguing from ignorance

a fallacy falsely assuming that a conclusion can be reached on the basis of the absence of evidence

continuum fallacy

a false assumption that qualitative changes along a line of progression do not occur without agreement about exactly where such changes occur

question begging

a fallacy that assumes that a debatable question can be treated as already answered

ad hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

poisoning the well

a fallacy dismissing an individual as unqualified to speak on a topic based on some accident of circumstance

tu quoque

a fallacy falsely reasoning that someone who is guilty of an offense has no right to instruct others not to do something similar

ad populum

a fallacy appealing to the audience and its sentiments rather than to the merits of the argument

straw man

a fallacy responding to a weakened version of an opponent's case

majoring on minors

a fallacy that focuses attention on minor or inconsequential points to draw attention away from important ones

underdescription

the fallacy of creating a false sense of meaning by failing to fully describe a proposal or a crucial component in an opponent's case

paralepsis

the strategy of making a claim about an issue by stating that you will not bring up that issue or that the matter is insignificant

selection fallacy

promoting a false interpretation by presenting only some of the relevant evidence in a case, while intentionally excluding other evidence that would contradict the suggested interpretation

arrangement fallacy

the fallacy that creates a false impression by ordering, associating, or grouping items of evidence in a misleading way