Chapter 22

*On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres* by Copernicus was published in

1543

*the Starry Messenger* by Galileo was published in

1610

*Principa Mathematic* by Newton was published in

1687

*The Leviathan* published by Thomas Hobbes in

1651

*Encyclopedia* published in

1751

Reign of Fredrick the Great date

1740-1786

American Revolution date

1776-1781

1300-1600 = big changes in Europe

Renaissance: inspire curiosity

Reformation: move towards secular/question God

Enlightenment

Revolution

before 1500s true vs false

by looking to Ancient Greece/Roman authors or the Bible (didn’t challenge scientific ideas of ancient thinkers/the church)

The Medieval View

earth = immovable object at center of the universe, everything orbits around it

common sense supports this

Christianity = God placed the earth at the cent of the universe

geocentric theory

from Aristotle, expanded by Ptolemy

earth = center of the universe + everything rotates around it

mid-1500s = a few scholars publish challenging works

challenge ancient thinkers + the church, replaced old assumptions with new theories, started the Scentitifce Revolution

Scientific Revolution =

new way of thinking about the natural would, based upon careful observation + willingness to question accepted beliefs

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

Renaissance: Euro explorers travel across the globe + new discoveries = open possibilities that there are new truths to be found

printing press = spread of new challenging ideas

age of exploration = scientific research in astronomy _ math (navigation, geography)

earliest challenge to scientific thinking =

astronomy

geocentric throw does not:

accurately explain the movements of the sun, moon, planets

old term for science =

natural philosophy

Scholasticism (Thomas Aquinas)

method of religous/intellectual justification of the ancient world through study of the Bible

Nic Copernicus (1473-1543)

\
* Polish priest + astronomer
* HE WAS A MAN OF GOD!!!!
* Couldn't reconcile things 
* Decided that we weren't stationary/we might be moving around the sun…
* Doesn't make sense
* *On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)*
* **Heliocentric** versus geocentric view of the solar system
* Ruined Aristotle's views
* Earth isn't the center of the Universe
* Takes down importance + significance of humanity a lot
* Takes down idea that God put YOU at the center of the universe
* Church hates this
* Does Not publish works until deathbed b/c of fear
* Challenged Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in use since antiquity (2000 years)
* Was a lot better, but still not right (Sun isn't the center of the universe)
* Coperniacian system no more accurate than Ptolemaic (but more important as a new paradigm) slow to gain ground

ON the Recolutions of the Heavily Spheres =

Heliocentric theory

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

\
* Tyco Brahe (1546-1601)
* Danish astronomer (loved to party)
* Very into measuring + collecting data of stars
* Brought up by his uncle
* Rejected Copernican view
* Created his own “Tychonic System”
* Compex, unique, never went anywhere
* very weird + complicate (+ wrong)
* Knight of Denmark noticed him
* Set him up w/ his own castle on his own island
* Uraniborg
* Had parties there
* The Queen showed up–rumors started to fly…
* Tyco left Denmark 
* Recorded vast body of astronomical data drawn on by Kepler
* Johannes Kepler = assistant
* Had a fake copper nose
* Also had gold + silver ones around for special occasions
* Lost it in a math duel
* Has a pet Elk
* Roamed the castle freely
* Was let to run free in the house + got drunk at a party, fell down the stairs, died
* Died of “bladder failure”
* Was found murdered…
* Was at a big German party next to a princess
* Did ask to get up to go to the bathroom
* Bladder burst = death
* Traces of mercury found in his mustache
* Was Johannes Kepler his murderer???
* Poisoned b/c Kepler was very ambitious
* Wanted Brahe’s data…
* Wouldn't give it to him, made him very angry
* 2nd exhumation = probably not Kepler (not murder)

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

\
* German astronomer
* Brahe’s assistant (not friends tho)
* Got the data when Brahe died
* continues/made sense of his work
* Advocated Copernican view (unlike his master)
* Took advantage of Brahe’s data big time
* Figured out planets move in **elliptical** (not circular) orbits
* Egg shaped/football
* proves that Copernicus’s ideas are true
* *The New Astronomy (1609)*
* *Advocated Copernican view + ellipses orbits*
* Was Kepler Brahe’s murderer??

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

\
* Italian mathematician + natural philosopher
* Lived right next to the Church…
* Was a devout Catholic + true believer
* Gave his daughters to the Church
* Could not turn away from what his observations showed him
* Broke ground using his own telescope 
* Used on tall buildings to look for ships
* Quicker transitions at ports
* Found heavens much more complex than previously understood
* Became high-profile Copernican advocate
* The Church did not like him at all
* *The Starry Messenger*
* Articulated concept of a universe governed by mathematical laws
* destroys Aristotles theory that the moon + stars are perfect substance
* said that the plants had imperfections/weren’t perfect
* contradicted the theories/beliefs of the Church (they though the planet were perfect bc god had created them)
* Universe isn't governed by God anymore
* The Church accuses him of heresy + sentences him to house arrest
* One copy of his book wasn't burned tho
* Bought it North where there were a bunch of printing presses
* Exploded his message
* *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World System*
* *supported Copernicus = house arrest*

GG’s beliefs conflict w the Church b/c

mess with one idea of the Church will lead to more questioning of the Church;s authority

Issac Newton (1642-1727)

\
* Discovered laws of gravity
* All physical objects in the universe move though mutual attractions (gravity)
* Explained optics + invented calculus
* “Newton’s Laws”
* Explained gravity mathematically 
* *Principia Mathematica (1687)*
* *Revolution in modern understanding of mechanics*
* world = like a clock, everything works tgh
* god = great clockmaker
* *Describes physics*
* *Newton's laws of motion*
* *Optics too*

scientific method

logical procedure for gathering + testing ideas


1. starts with a problem/question
2. form hypothesis
3. test hypothesis
4. analyize/interpert data

by Descart + Bacon

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

MAIN THING: EMPERICAL METHOD

* English lawyer, gov official, historian, essayist
* attacked medieval scholars
* told people to experiment to reach conclusions
* called empiricism
* Inventor of the **empirical** method
* Scientific method
* Considered father of **empiricism** (scientific experimentation)
* Rules, laws, steps to follow for experimentation/proving scientific ideas
* Real accomplishment wasd setting an intellectual tone conductive to scientific inquiry
* **Attacked scholastic** adherence to intellectual authorities of the past
* One of the first European writers to champion innovation + change as goals contributing to human change
* Change = inevitable + good now

René Descartes (1596-1650)

MAIN THING: DEDUCTIVE/HUMAN REASONING

* Gifted mathematician
* Inventor of analytic geometry
* Most important contribution = scientific method relying more on **deduction** (deriving specific fats from general principals) than empiricism
* Think clue
* *Discourse on Method (1637)*
* ***Rejection*** *of scholastic philosophy + education in favor of mathematical models*
* *Rejection of all intellectual authority except his own reason*
* *Concluded (God-given)* ***human reason*** *was sufficient to comprehend the world (how can this lead to Enlightenment???)*
* *Was a heretical statement before*
* *How can humans understand the wonders of God???*
* *Now–”no, we do have human reasoning as a gift from God”*
* Divided world into two categories
* Cartesian Dualism
* You are temporary!!!
* Mind (thinking)
* Body (extension)
* “I think, therefore, I am”
* His **deductive reasoning** eventually lost out ot “Scientific Induction”

MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DESCARTES + BACON

Descartes: math + logic

Bacon: experimentation

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

\
* Most original political philosopher of 17th century
* Cromwell’s England
* Enthusiastic supporter of New Science
* Turmoil of English Civil War motivated his *Leviathan* (1615)
* Great lord you give up power to so they will “protect you”
* Rigorous philosophical justification for absolutist gov
* “Humans can’t govern themselves” + are selfish at best
* Life w/o overlords =  “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, short”
* Humans not basically social, but basically self-centered
* State of nature = state of war
* Fascist gov–”give me your loyalty + I will protect you”
* Like Machiavelli + *the Prince*
* Leviathan = model overlord

John Locke (1632-1704)

\
* Most influential philosopher + political thinker of the 17th century
* William + Mary
* Contrast w/ Hobbes
* *First Treatise of Gov*
* *Argued against patriarchal models of gov*
* *Second Treatise of Gov*
* *Gov as necessarily responsible for and responsive to the governed*
* *Gov should be there to serve the needs of the people*
* *Not to dictate + control + punish them*
* *Humans basically creatures of reason + goodwill*
* *Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)*
* *Argument for religious toleration*
* *Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)*
* *Described human mind at birth as a “blank slate” w/ content to be determined by sensory experience*
* *Reformist view*
* *Rejects Christian concept of original sin*
* *God knows your a sinner so the Church hates this*
* *If your a sinner you have to be part of the Church*
* *Locke says no to this*
* *You’re not born a sinner*

The Rise of Academic Societies

The New Science threatened vested academic interests (priests teaching the Bible)

* Was slow to gain ground in universities


* Establishment of “institutions of sharing” (outside of Universities)
* Royal Society of London (1660)
* Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657)
* French Academy of Science (1666)Berlin Academy of Science (1700)
* Like clubs: would have meetings to learn + discuss
* Would give prizes to people who could solve problems/answer questions
* “How to tell time at sea”

**Queen Christina** of Sweden (1623-1654)

Brought Descartes to Stockholm to design regulations for a new science academy

* Very smart, philosophical, etc
* Match for Descartes intellectually
* Painting of monk w/ his back to the Scientific Revolutionaries

**Margaret Cavendish** (1623-1673)

*Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666)*

* *Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668)*
* British: observations on empiricism (scientific facts/observations)
* Wrote widely on scientific subjects
* Most accomplished scientific woman in 17th century England

Maria Winkelmann

Accomplished German astronomer

* Excluded from Berlin Academy
* Still did many successful observations on her own

3 main issues w/ New Science + Religion + Church responses

* Certain scientific theories + discoveries conflicted w/ Scripture 
* Don't agree w/ each other, negate each other, etc
* Who resolved such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers?
* Used to be priests who just told you to have faith in God
* New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe w/ purely material one
* Discoveries replace what we though God did
* Lessens belief in Him

\
* Representative incident: RCC authorities condemn Galileo for heresy (1633)
* Under house arrest for the last nine years of his life
* Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s *On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres* on Index of Prohibited Books (1616)
* RCC formally admits errors of biblical interpretation in Galileo’s case (1992)

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) (Gameshow Host/Casino Owner)

French mathematician

* Opposed both dogmatism (feverishly a believer of the Bible, everyone else is going to hell) + skepticism (you don't really believe anything)
* Erroneous belief in God = safer bet than erroneous unbelief
* **Pascal’s Wager**
* **If God exists its probably a good idea to believe in Him**
* **Even if you don’t believe in Him really, believe in Him b/c wouldn't it be better to be wrong + do that than to be wrong and there be a God**
* **Might as well believe b/c conditional probability tells you you should**
* Bridge into the Enlightenment

old scientific method vs new

old: relieved on ancient authors, church teachings, common sense, reasonoing to explain the world

new: observation, experimentation. scientific reasoning to get knowledge + draw conclusions about physical world

new scientific instruments

microscope: Zacharias Janssen (Dutch, 1590)

bacteria + blood cells: (Anton van Leeuwenhoek)

mercury barometer: Evangelista Torricelli

thermometer: Celcius + Ferinheit

Old anatomy:

Middle Ages = Galen: only directed animals, never humans

Andreas Vesalius

Flemish physician who directed human corpses + published observations

*On the Structure of the Human Body*

drawing of human anatomy

vaccines

Edward Jenner: vaccine for smallpox thru cowpox

Robert Boyle

founder of modern chem

pioneered use of scientific method in chem

*Yhe Sceptical Chymist*

Challenged Aritotled idea that physical world = earth, aire, water, fire

Boyles Law: explains how volume, temp, pressure of gas affect each other

enlightenment (Age of Reason)

new intellectual movement that stressed reason + thought + power of individuals to solve problems

Englightenemtn started by

Hobbes + Locke

Hobbes’s social contract

people ssjpuld hand over the rights to a strong ruler to escape bleak life = gin law + order.

bc people act in their own self-interest the ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control

best gov = absolute monarchy (impose order + demand obedience)

The right to govern old vs new ideas

old: monarchs rule = justified by devine right

new: Govs power comes from consent of the governed

Locke’s Natural Rights

people learn from experience + improve themselves

have natural ability to gov their own affairs + look after the welfare of society

all people are born free + equal; w 3 natural rights: life, liberty, property

purpose of gov = protect those rights

Govs power comes from the consent of the people = foundation of modern democracy 

enlightenment height is in

france, mid 1700s

Paris = meeting place for people who want to discuss politics + ideas

Social critics of French enlightenment =

Philosophes

philosophers believe that all people can apply reason to all aspects of like (like Newton applied reason to science)

their 5 main beliefs =

1. reason
2. nature
3. happiness
4. progress
5. liberty

 Example of British Toleration and Political Society (inspires Locke)

\
* Magna Carta (1603-1688) (King John)
* Political debate of what the political future of Britain would be
* England was 100 years ahead of Europe in terms of progress
* Religious toleration except for Unitarians + RCC’s
* Freedom of speech + press
* Not perfect *but it was there*
* Limited monarchy
* Court, jury, (American style), etc
* Courts protect citizens from arbitrary

Printing Press

\
* The volume of printed materials increased crazily
* Books, journals, magazines, newspaper
* Galileo's *Starry Messenger* could be suppress by the Church
* Causes people to expand knowledge + progress
* Gain right (Locke)
* Church can’t stop it
* Religious vs secular
* Increasing number of books that were not religious led to criticism
* People of Print
* Joseph Addison + Richard Steele
* Published books on politeness + value of books
* Alexander Pope + **Voltaire**
* Become wealthy + famous from their writings

public opinion change

\
* Collective effect on political + social life of views discussed in the home, workplace, place of leisure
* Gov had to answer to the people
* To win politics just tell people what they want to hear
* People opinions start to matter b/c they can communicate better
* Type of revolution like texting, social media, etc
* Rulers must listen to the people now
* IDEAS HAVE POWER
* Central European govs in fear of censored book 
* Confiscated offending titles + imprisoned authors
* Further East you go, the more oppressed you get

Philosophers (in general)

\
* People who favored change, championed reform, advocated toleration
* Change was hated by the Church = God
* Could be found at universities + coffee houses, royal academies, salons
* Were usually or expansion of trade, improvement of agriculture + transportation, invention of new manufacturing industries
* Sailing tech, steam engine, etc
* They liked new things!!!

Voltaire

(satire: targeted clergy, aristocracy, gov = enemies at French court = sent to prison 2x = exiled to England)

fought for tolerance, reason, religion, speech

* Imprisoned at the bastille for offending the French
* Whent to exile in England
* Social commentator (like Erasmus)
* Sharp, sardonic tone
* Criticized hypocrisy of French crown + its poor system
* Poverty vs wealth, etc
* French hate him for his comments
* Imprison him in the Bastille (French fort)
* Exiled to England (more free speech!!!)
* French Enlightenment writer, historian, philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the establishes RCC, his advocacy of freedom of religion, expression, separation of church +  state
* FREEDOM OF RELIGION, EXPRESSION, SEPARATION
* American gov
* “I might not like what you say, but I will defend it”
* Outspoken advocate, despite risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of time
* Satirical polemicist = he frequently made use of his works to criticism intolerance, religious dogma, French institution of his day
* Round the time of the Bourbons (Louis)
* Criticized the French, so they imprisoned him, etc
* Published works
* 1733–Letters on the English
* Praised the British for their freedoms, especially religion + criticized the French
* 1738–Elements of the Philosophy of Newton
* Popularized the theories of Newton after his death
* 1759–Candide
* Satire attacking war, religious persecution + unwarranted optimism about the human condition

religion w/ the enlightenment

\
* Enlightenment challenge the church + its concepts of “original sin”
* Like Locke 
* Nurture vs. Nature
* The church was not just challenges for its thoughts but for its practices
* Not paying taxes
* Being rulers + religious leaders (392–Greg the Great)
* Literary censorship (of everything!!!!)

Deism

\
* Religion + reason Combined (ID!!!)
* John Toland
* 1696–Christianity Not Mysterious
* Promoted religion as **natural + rational** rather than supernatural + mystical
* Deism = tolerant, responsible, capable of encouraging virtual living
* Combination of reason + religion
* Rooted in “truth”

works of religious toleration

\
* John Locke
* 1689–*Letter Concerning Toleration*
* Set forth toleration as prime requisite for a virtuous life
* Voltaire
* 1763–*Treatise on Tolerance*
* Wanted answers to why the RCC executed Huguenot Jean Calas
* Gothold Lessing
* 1779–*Nathan the Wise*
* Called for religious tolerance of all religions, not just Christianity

Radical Enlightenment texts

\
* David Hume
* 1748–*Inquiry Into Human Nature*
* No empirical evidence that miracles exist
* Take the fun/mystery out of religion
* Voltaire
* 1764–*Philosophical Dictionary*
* Using humanor, pointing out inconsistencies in the Bible + the immoral acts of Biblical heroes
* Lots of BAD stuff in the Bible… (more allegorical?)
* Edward Gibbon
* 1776–*Decline + Fall of the Roman Empire*
* Empires the rise of Christianity through natural causes
* History of Christianity
* Immanuel Kant
* 1793–*Religion w/in the Limits of Reason Alone*
* Religion as a humane force through which there can be virtuous living
* Humans can’t solve everything–radical thought for Enlightenment philosopher
* Our brain is stuck in 3D…
* We cannot comprehend some things
* Concept of infinity, multiverse

Jewish thinkers

\
* **Baruch Spinoza** (*Ethics*)
* Closely identified God w/ nature + the spiritual to the material world
* *1670–Theologico-Political Treatise*
* *Called on both Jews + Christian to use reason in religious matters*
* *Share in reason even w/ different opinions*
* *Excommunicated from his synagogue for his beliefs*
* *“Ecumenical beliefs”*
* Lived in Netherlands (religious toleration)

Islam in enlightenment thought

\
* Christians viewed Islam a false religions + its founder Muhammad as an imposter
* Philosophers Negative on Islam
* Islam had turned away from science
* 1100–tuned to fundamentalism (Al Gazali) 
* Voltaire’s: *Fanaticism* (1742)
* Cited Islam as one more example of religious fanaticism
* Charles de Motesqueu’s: *Spirit of the Law* (1748)
* Stated Islam’s passivity made it subject to political despotism
* “Surrender” = too passive 
* Philosophers Positive on Islam
* Deists Toland + Gibbon viewed Islam in a positive light
* More open about positive parts of Islam
* Lady Mary Wortley Montagu: *Turkish Embassy Letters* (1716-1718)
* Praised Ottoman society/felt women were freer

Encyclopedia

\
* Collection of all sorts of thoughts
* The internet before its time
* Edited by Denis Niderot + Jean Le Rond d’Alembert
* Denis Diderot = heroic editor
* COMPLIED IT NOT WROTE IT
* Collective work of more than 100 authors
* Important info about 28th century social + econ life
* Aimed to secularize learning
* Between 14000-16000 copies sold before 1789 (highest point of the Enlightenment w/ French Revolution)
* Went “platinum”

Beccaria

italian, laws are to keep order, not avenge crimes

* “Eye for an eye” = old way of punishment
* Becarria questioned this
* “What is the right way to be punished?”
* Is this right, is this wrong, does this work, does this not, is God involved in punishment?
* *On Crimes + Punishment (1764)*
* *Spoke out against torture + capital punishment*
* *Just like an Enlightenment philosopher would*
* *Wanted speedy trials*
* *Purpose of punishment = deter further crimes*
* Purpose of laws = guarantee happiness for as many people as possible
* gov should seek the greatest foos for the greased amount of people

The Physiocrats + Ecpn Freedom

\
* Physiocrats = econ reformers in France
* Leaders = François Quesnay + Pierre Dupont de Nemours
* Believed primary role of gov = protect property + permit owners to use it freely

Adam Smith

MIAN: LAISSEZ FAIRE

* *Inquiry into the Nature + Causes of the* ***Wealth of Nations*** *(****1776****)*
* *Most famous work of Enlightenment*
* *Argued best way to create econ growth = people pursue their own selfish self-interests*
* *Selfishness = good in capitalism*
* *“Greed is Good”*
* *Must be free to do your will to reach your max potential*
* *That the world can then benefit on*
* *Articulate the modern rules of Capitalism*
* ***Enlightenment created Capitalism***
* *Capitalism feeds on the competitiveness of freedom*
* *“Take the shackles off of economy and people will get fast”*
* Founder of laissez-faire econ thought
* Limited role of the gov in the econ
* Four-stage theory = human societies classified as the following:
* Hunting + gathering
* Pastoral or herding
* Agriculture
* Commercial–society at its highest level

political thought of the philosophers

\
* Most though came from France
* Versaille, etc
* Propose solutions included aristocracy, reform, **radicalism/**democracy, absolute monarchy
* No one really believed in democracy at the time…

Montyesquieu

frech writer

* *Spirit of Laws (1748)* (plagiarized by the American founding fathers)
* Concluded that no single set of political laws would apply to all people, at all times, in all places
* Best gov for a country depends on: (Britain = best gov)
* Size
* Population
* Social + religious customs
* Econ structure
* Traditions
* Climate
* Believed in **separation of power** 
* One part of the gov would not be completely in control
* Governmental Rock, paper, scissors
* Separation of power
* If one thing is more powerful than another but still has something to crush it + (cycles)
* If not stopped, “rock will roll”
* People won't stop getting power for themselves unless stopped
* Executive, Judicial, Legislative
* Saves you from an autocratic government

Jean Jaques Rousseau

individual freedoms

thought civilization corrupted natural goodness--good gov = freely formed by the people + guided by society (direct democracy)

* Written works:
* *Discourse on the Moral Effect of the Arts + Sciences (1750)*
* *Contended that the process of civilization + the Enlightenment had corrupted human nature*
* *Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)*
* *Blamed much of the evil of the world on the uneven distribution of property (Marx)*
* *The Social Contract (1762)*
* *Society is more important that its individual members* 
* *Social contract = stops you from yelling fire, or screaming during a movie*
* *Each person can maintain individual freedom while being a loyal member of a larger community*
* *By accepting your freedoms you also accept their limitations (your lack thereof freedom)*
* *Limiting your own freedom so you don’t infringe on the freedom of others*
* *If you infringe on the rights of other you don't have those rights either*
* *Freedoms = to acknowledge that you dot have some freedoms*
* *“Fire” in a movie theater*
* *Agreement that you enter into a free society knowing there are limitations to those freedoms*
* *Make us all safe + free*
* Democracy is alway experimenting

Hoobes vs Rousseu social contact

Hobbes: agreement between society + government

Rousseau: agreement among individuals to create a society + a gov

Enlightenment Critics of European Empires

\
* Few philosophers of the Enlightenment criticized the Europeans on moral grounds (Snowdens of the world)
* pillaging/enslavement, genocide of Natives, valid criticism, human right violations
* Conquest of the American
* Treatment of the native Americans
* Enslavement of Africans
* 3 ideas from the Critics
* 1. “Human beings deserve some modicum of moral + political respect simply because they are human beings” (Human Rights)
* 2. “Different cultures should have been respected + understood, not destroyed” (Equality of humanity)
* 3. “Human beings may develop distinct culture possessing intrinsic values that cannot be compared because each culture possess deep inner social + linguistics complexities that make any simple comparison impossible” (Moral Relativism)

Women in the Thought + Practice of the Enlightenment

Montesquieu

* Believed in equality of the sexes but had a traditional view of family + marriage
* Equal intellectual capabilities, but society has placed us in roles
* Female role = home, children, etc
* Men = fields, gov, working, etc


* *Encyclopedia* 
* *Suggested ways to improve women’s lives, didn't suggest reform*
* *Though on how to make female lives better, but not to change the gender roles*
* *Gender roles = pretty set in stone*
* Rousseau
* Felt women should be subordinate to men
* Not liberated when it came to women
* Mary Wollstonecraft
* *A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)*
* Defend equality of women w/ men based on human reason
* British
* Very outspoken for the vindication of the rights of women
* told women to enter male dominated politics
* Mary Astell
* *A Serious Proposal to the Ladies*
* adressed l.lck of edu opportunities for women
* wanted equality between men + women

female help in the enlightenment

salons in Paris + other cities (Emilie du Chatelet)

Enlightenment caused 3 things

belief in progess

more secular outlook

importance of individual

belief in progress

growth in scientific knowledge expanded = confidence in human reasoning to solve social problems (wanted to ends saber, inequality, absolutism)

more secure outlook

people question the church + God (want to rid religious on superstition + fear + bring tolerance)

importance of individual

people turn away from royalty + the church to them selves

encouraged people to use their own ablitlity to reason to determine right/wrong

gov = formed by individuals (Adam Smith--indivicals to Econ progress)

reason takes center stage

salons

drawing rom software wealthy Parisian women where people gathered to discuss ideas

Marie Therese Goffrin

financed the encyclopedia (Diderot)

Diderot

compiles the encyclopedia: angers the CC, bans it, still published tho

baroque

new style, ornate, bold, bright, etc

GO BAROQUE OR GO HOME

rococo

similar to baroque

* Became style/staple of French aristocracy (Versialle, royalty)
* Famous artists included:
* Jean-Antoine Watteau
* Francois Boucher
* Jean-Honoré Fragonard

neoclassical

went back to the ancient world

* Back to classic Renaissance
* Same thing just 200 years later
* Human, realistic, glorifies ancient roman world, classica world, perspective, etc
* Concerned w/ public life more than the intimate families of rococo
* Famous artist = Jaques-Louis David (most famous Neoclassical) + Jean Antoine Houdon

music changes (Classical)

classical music mergers (Austria)

Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven

new writing styles

novels (popular w. middle class) = entertaining (Pamela + tome Jones)

enlightened spirit swept into royal courts

philosophes tried to get monarchs to rule justly + respect people rhjts

enlightened despots

absolute rulers wo supported philosophes ideas

no intention of giving up pwoer

changed they made were motivated by desire to strengthen countries + make rule more effective

Fred the Great

king of Prussia, committed to reform

* Promotion through merit
* Work + edu rather than birth would decide who ruled Prussia
* Harder you work the further you get, not how you are born
* Maybe last name should be why you rule (Hapsburgs)
* Religious toleration
* Forever Christian, Muslim, Jew
* Enlightened + reasonable!
* Administration + econ reforms + improved edu
* Legal reform included abolishing torture + limiting number of capital crimes 
* Listened to Ceasar Beccaria’
* didn’t end serfdom bc needed the landowners support
* never tried to change the social order
* “first servant of the state”

Joseph II of Austria

most radical royal reformer

* Centralization of authority (makes it more streamline, at the expres of other places)
* Aimed to extend the empire at the expense of Poland, Bavaria, Ottoman Empire
* More power for the crown…now super enlightened 
* Ecclesiastical policies
* Religious toleration + bringing the RCC under royal control
* Not super enlightened, just to gain more power for himself
* Econ + Agrarian Reform!!!
* Improved transportation + trade
* Abolished serfdom
* Land taxation
* legal reforms + freedom of press + religion

Catherine the Great

most admired + pals w/ Voltaire

* Limited administrative reform
* Local control of the nobility
* Maintained control over the nobility
* tried to reform gov based on Baccaria + Montesquieu
* Econ growth
* *Opened up trade* + favored the expansion of the urban middle class
* Trade = lifeblood of any country
* Territorial expansion
* To warm weather ports along the Balitic + Black Sea
* Added to St. Petersburg
* Crymia = better bc it's much warmer
* Added territory W of the Dnieper River
* Soured on Enlightenment as she got older

changing relationship between ruler to state old vs new

old: state + citizen exist to serve the monarchy “I am the state”

New: monarch exists to serve the state + people “the 1st sevant of the state”

top 3 monarchs fade

Fred the great of Prussia

* Grew remote w/ age + left aristocracy to fill gov posts


* Joseph II of Austria
* In response to criticism turned to censorship = the secret police
* Catherine the Great of Russia
* Peanut uprisings led to fears of social + political upheaval

early Britain + colonies

thriving, rich, growing, trade, Americanism, independed from each other

Navigation Act

trade law that stupid colonist from selling most valuable products to any country except Britain

britians taxes/policies surprisingly do this for the colonies:

benefit them, raw materials to manufacture good cheaply, trade thrived

French + Indian War

Britain fights for colonies + wins, gains huge territory + DEBT

debt from F + I war =

Britain expects America to help pay for it, adds taxes (Stamp Act)

13 colonies = subjects of King George III

* Revolution starts in 1763–end of F + I War

British sent tons of men + ships to fight the French + Natives to defend their empire + colonies/colonists

* Huge win/war (all of France's American territory = huge responsibility)
* WARS ARE EXPENSIVE!!!
* 7 years of defending colonies against the French, British parliament decided that the colonies need to help pay off the debts from the war

Since 1607-1763–colonist became American, used to own ways of doing things, had never been to Britain before

Paid homage to a country/king they didn’t know

* Britain let these colonies govern themselves (very very far away from each other = couldn't micromanage)
* Just told them generally what to do
* Colonies love Britain originally
* Lead to Americans getting very used to independence + freedom
* Britain gets used to giving colonies their own freedoms + independence + the colonies get used to having those freedoms

Salutary neglect

Britain got used to letting the colonies govern themselves + do what they want

* Britain had every right to tax the colonies + tell them what to do/laws


* Over time, Britain stopped enforcing every single letter of the taxes (they don’t care cause its sooo far away)
* No one upset about it (technically illegal but Biryian doesn’t care bc they're gaining so much money off of the colonies: cotton, sugar, fur, timer, tobacco, etc)
* Letter of the law doesn't really matter until 1763