Pathophysiology Exam 1

Injury in any cellular component can lead to what?

Disease

What cells cover and line body surfaces?

Epithelial

What are epithelial cells specialized for?

Selective secretion and absorption of ions and organic molecules, and for protection

What cells are avascular, and rely on underlying connective tissue for nutrients and oxygen via diffusion through the basement membrane?

Epithelial

Eczema, Psoriasis, Dermatitis, Carcinomas, and Peptic ulcers are all diseases/disorders that target what cells?

Epithelial

What kind of epithelial cells line blood vessels and air sacs of lungs, permitting exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases?

Simple squamous

What kind of epithelial cells line the kidney tubules and glands, secreting and reabsorbing water and small molecules?

Simple cuboidal

What kind of epithelial cells line most digestive organs for absorbing nutrients and producing mucus?

Simple columnar

What kind of epithelial cells serve as the outer layer of skin, mouth, and vagina, and protect against abrasion, drying out, and infection?

Stratified squamous

What kind of epithelial cells line ducts of sweat glands and secrete water and ions?

Stratified cuboidal

What kind of epithelial cells line epididymis, mammary glands, and larynx, for secreting mucus?

Stratified columnar

What kind of cells connect, anchor, and support the structures of the body, and are the most abundant tissue in the body?

Connective tissue

What are the two major structural proteins in connective tissue?

Collagen and Elastin

What cells fight off inflammation?

Leukocytes (white blood cells)

What secretes Collagen, being very important for maintaining the structural framework of tissue and extracellular matrix (ECM), playing a critical role in wound heailng?

Fibroblasts

Rheumatoid Arthritis, Lupus, Scleroderma, Marfan Syndrome, and Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome are all disorders/diseases affecting what cells?

Connective tissue

What are the 3 type of muscle cells in the body?

Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth

What muscle is anchored by tendons to bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and maintaining posture (voluntary)?

Skeletal

What muscle is similar to skeletal muscle but is only found in the heart (involuntary)?

Cardiac

What muscle is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bladder, and blood vessels (involuntary)?

Smooth

Lou Gehrig’s disease, Atrophy, Muscular dystrophy, Myasthenia gravis, Cardiomyopathy, and Asthma all affect what cells?

Muscle

What is a cell of the nervous system that is specialized to initiate, integrate, and conduct electrical signals to other cells?

Neuron

Parkinson’s Alzheimer’s, Strokes, Shingles, etc. are all diseases/disorders affecting what?

Neurons

What separates or compartmentalizes ions and molecules, allowing for the development of fluid compartments in the body?

Membranes

How are adjacent cells linked together?

Membrane junction

True or false: The membrane of a cell detects chemical signals from other cells and facilitates these signals

True

What are fluid compartments in the body separated by that control movement of water and solutes?

Selectively permeable membranes

What is the total body water percentage?

60%

What is the limiting factor of molecules travelling rapidly across cell membranes?

Hydrophobic interior of the cell membrane’s phospholipid bilayer

The amount of sodium in the body is a prime determinant of what?

ECF volume

What is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane?

Osmosis

What is the total concentration of all solutes in a solution?

Osmolarity

True or false: Osmolarity takes into account the total concentration of penetrating solutes and non-penetrating solutes

True

What is the ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of a cell by osmosis?

Tonicity

How do cells regulate their responses to chemical messengers?

By increasing or decreasing the number of active receptors on their surface (upregulation or downregulation)

What are the two ways that cells can change after injury?

• Develop adaptive, compensatory changes in attempt to maintain homeostasis

• Develop maladaptive changes, which are derangements of structure or function

What is cell population determined by?

A balance of cell proliferation, death by apoptosis, and emergence of newly differentiated cells

What is tissue size directly related to?

Changes in cell size and/or number

When term defines when cells become more specialized in structure and function (depending on internal and external stimuli)?

Differentiation

What kind of cells have the ability to replace damaged cells and treat disease?

Stem cells

What stem cells are produced by a fertilized ovum?

Totipotent

What stem cells can differentiate into the three germ layers of the embryo (can become all types of cells)?

Pluripotent

What are adult stem cells that are found in our bodies that maintain and repair the tissue where they are found?

Multipotent

What stem cells are “reprogrammed” (made in lab from adult specialized cells) and resemble embryonic stem cells?

“Induced” pluripotent

What is a process that results in an increase in the number of cells due to mitotic division?

Cell proliferation

True or false: As a cell becomes more highly specialized, it becomes more difficult for induce mitosis because the stimuli that are able to initiate this process become more limited

True

Which phase of the cell cycle is longer: Mitosis phase or Interphase?

Interphase

Interphase contains what periods of growth?

G1, S, and G2

What phase of Interphase is the period between Mitosis and DNA synthesis?

G1

What phase of Interphase is when DNA synthesis and replication occur (~12 hour process)?

S

What phase of Interphase is when RNA and protein synthesis occur?

G2

What phase of the cell cycle is the process by which chromosomes in a cell nucleus are separated into two identical sets of chromosomes, each in its own nucleus (<1 hour process)?

Mitosis (M) phase

What cell cycle checkpoint occurs toward the end of growth phase 1 (G1) and checks whether the cell is big enough and has made the proper proteins for the synthesis phase, and if not, it goes through a resting period (G0) until it is ready to divide?

Cell Growth Checkpoint

What cell cycle checkpoint occurs during the synthesis phase (S) and checks whether DNA has been replicated correctly, and continues onto mitosis (M) if so?

DNA Synthesis Checkpoint

What cell cycle checkpoint occurs during the mitosis phase (M) and checks whether mitosis is complete, and if so, the cell divides and the cycle repeats?

Mitosis Checkpoint

What are cells termed that continue to divide and replicate through life?

Continuously dividing (Labile)

What stimulates the rapid proliferation of replacement cells by forming progenitor cells of the bone marrow?

Bleeding

What are cells termed that normally stop dividing when growth ceases, remaining in G₀ stage of cell cycle?

Quiescent (Stable)

What are cells termed that do not proliferate, and are terminally differentiated, not undergoing mitotic division in postnatal life? If these are destroyed, they are replaced with fibrous scar tissue.

Nondividing (permanent)

What is cell proliferation stimulated by?

Growth factors, Hormones, and Cytokines

What is the role of Cytokines in cell proliferation?

Determine what the external environment is like, can decrease proliferation, important for immune functions, etc.

What is the role of Growth Factors in cell proliferation?

Many roles in addition to stimulating cell proliferation, regulates immune function and response to injury, may act in the cytoplasm or nucleus, etc.

What is Apoptosis?

Programmed cell death

What do “normal” adaptive responses occur in respond to?

Need, when need is removed, adaptive response ends

What do “abnormal” adaptive responses occur in response to?

Some pathological state (disease, surgery, injury, etc.)

What is the definition of Atrophy?

Cells reverting to smaller size and lower/more efficient functioning, usually in response to decrease in work demands

What are some causes of Atrophy?

Disuse, denervation, loss of endocrine stimulation, inadequate nutrition, ischemia/decreased blood flow

What is the definition of Hypertrophy?

Increase in cell size and amount of functioning tissue mass, resulting from increased workload imposed on organ or body part

What is the goal of Hypertrophy?

Achievement of equilibrium between demand and functional capacity

What are normal physiological occurrences of Hypertrophy?

Weightlifting, exercise, pregnancy, etc.

What are abnormal physiological occurrences of Hypertrophy?

Adaptive (increased functional demand) or Compensatory (reaction to loss)

Myocardial Hypertrophy due to a high blood pressure would be an example of what change in the body?

Adaptive

Enlargement of remaining organ (kidney) would be an example of what change in the body?

Compensatory

What is the definition of Hyperplasia?

Increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue

Where does Hyperplasia occur?

In tissues that are capable of mitotic division

What involves the activation of both genes controlling cell proliferation and intracellular messengers that control cell replication and growth?

Hyperplasia

True or false: Hyperplasia is an important response of connective tissue in wound healing

True

True or false: Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy can occur together

True

What is the reversible change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type?

Metaplasia

What does Metaplasia usually occur in response to?

Chronic irritation and inflammation, allowing for substitution of cells that are better able to survive

True or false: Metaplasia is always a precursor to cancer

False (not always, but it can be!)

What is the deranged cell growth of a specific tissue that results in cells that vary in size, shape, and organization?

Dysplasia

True or false: Dysplasia is considered a precursor of cancer

True

Dysfunction of Na+/K+ pump, loss of plasma membrane integrity, defects in protein synthesis ability, disruption of intracellular Ca++ homeostasis, and genetic damage are all basic changes that occur in…

cell injury

Mechanical forces, extremes of temperature, or electrical forces are all examples of what mechanism of cell injury?

Physical

Drugs (alcohol, prescription, illicit), or lead/mercury toxicity are examples of what mechanism of cell injury that injures the cell membrane cell structures, blocking enzymatic pathways, coagulate cell proteins, or disrupt the osmotic and ionic balance of cells?

Chemical

Viruses and parasites are what kind of cell injury agents?

Biologic

What kind of radiation describes energy with frequencies above the UV range (cancer treatment)?

Ionizing radiation

What kind of radiation describes sunburns and can cause cancer?

UV radiation

What kind of radiation describes energy with frequencies below the UV range, like ultrasounds and microwaves?

Nonionizing radiation

What is the mechanism of damage that radiation takes in cell injury?

Direct effects on DNA, indirect by free radical generation, cell death

What are unstable atoms that can damage cells, causing illness and aging?

Free radicals/Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

What are Free Radicals the toxic byproduct of?

Oxygen metabolism

What do Free radicals do?

Oxidize cell structures (oxidants)

How do Free radicals cause cell injury?

They disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane and damage organelles and DNA, causing cell dysfunction

What term describes deprivation of oxygen in the cell, interrupting oxidative metabolism and the generation of ATP?

Hypoxia

True or false: There is a large window between reversible and irreversible times that the body can be in Hypoxia

False (small window)

What occurs when Aerobic metabolism stops due to Hypoxia?

Less ATP is produced, Na+/K+ ATPase decreases, leading to increased intracellular sodium, leading to the cell to swell with water due to concentration gradient

What occurs when Anaerobic metabolism is used to compensate for less Aerobic metabolism due to Hypoxia?

Lactic acid is produced, damaging cell membrane, intracellular structures, and DNA

What are potential causes of Hypoxia?

Not enough O2 due to high altitude, asthma, hypoventilation, COPD, Carbon monoxide poisoning, Cyanide poisoning, or alcohol and barbiturate overdose