AP US Government and Politics Unit 5

demography

The science of population changes.

electorate

All of the people entitled to vote in a given election.

ordinance

A local law.

initiative

A procedure by which voters can propose a law or a constitutional amendment (participatory democracy).

referendum

A legislative act is referred for final approval to a popular vote by the electorate.

rational-choice theory

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.

responsible party model

A view about how parties should work, held by some political scientists. According to the model, parties should offer clear choices to the voters and once in office, should carry out their campaign promises.

ticket splitting

Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices. It has become the norm in American voting behavior.

policy voting

Electoral choices that are made on the basis of the voters' policy preferences and where the candidates stand on policy issues.

political efficacy

The belief that one's political participation really matters—that one's vote can actually make a difference.

recall

A procedure whereby the voters can remove an elected official from office.

Fifteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment adopted in 1870 to extend suffrage to African Americans.

Nineteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment adopted in 1920 that guarantees women the right to vote.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

The constitutional amendment passed in 1964 that declared poll taxes void in federal elections.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment

Right to vote for 18 years and above.

Twenty-Third Amendment

Washington DC gets three electors in electoral college.

voter registration

system adopted by the states that requires voters to register prior to voting. Some states require citizens to register as much as 30 days in advance, whereas others permit Election Day registration.

descriptive representation

The extent to which a representative resembles those being represented, as voters often conflate similar race, geographical location, or background with similarities in views.

political issue

An issue that arises when people disagree about a problem and how to fix it.

gender gap

The regular pattern in which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates, in part because they tend to be less conservative than men and more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending.

salience

The extent to which people believe issues are relevant to them.

voter turnout

the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election

party identification

A citizen's self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other.

party image

The voter's perception of what the Republicans or Democrats stand for, such as conservatism or liberalism.

midterm election

Elections held midway between presidential elections and include 1/3 of senators and all house members.

turnout

The proportion of the voting age public that votes, sometimes defined as the number of registered voters that vote.

linkage institutions

The political channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. In the United States, linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

political party

According to Anthony Downs, a "team of men [and women] seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election."

national chairperson

The person responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party.

national committee

One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. The national committee is composed of representatives from the states and territories.

party machines

A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage, to win votes and to govern.

party platform

A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. The platform is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate's strength. It is the best formal statement of a party's beliefs.

patronage

One of the key inducements used by party machines. A patronage job, promotion, or contract is one that is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.

nonpartisan election

A local or judicial election in which candidates are not selected or endorsed by political parties and party affiliation is not listed on ballots.

minority majority

The situation, likely beginning in the mid-twenty-first century, in which the non-Hispanic whites will represent a minority of the U.S. population and minority groups together will represent a majority.

critical election

An electoral "earthquake" where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party. Critical election periods are sometimes marked by a national crisis and may require more than one election to bring about a new party era.

dealignment

Weakening of partisan preferences that point to a rejection of both major parties and a rise in the number of independents.

party dealignment

The gradual disengagement of people from the parties, as seen in part by shrinking party identification.

party eras

Historical periods in which a majority of voters cling to the party in power, which tends to win a majority of the elections.

party polarization

When an individual's stance on a given issue, policy, or person is more likely to be strictly defined by their identification with a particular political party.

party realignment

The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election period.

realigning election

An election during periods of expanded suffrage and change in the economy and society that proves to be a turning point, redefining the agenda of politics and the alignment of voters within parties.

third parties

Electoral contenders other than the two major parties. American third parties are not unusual, but they rarely win elections.

winner-take-all system

An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who come in first in their constituencies.

spoiler effect

When a 3rd party candidate takes enough votes away from one of the main party candidates to make him/her lose the election. Ex., Ralph Nader & Green Party may have caused Al Gore to lose Florida, and therefore the 2000 election, to George Bush.

interest group

An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals. Interest groups pursue their goals in many arenas.

issue advocacy

Promoting a particular position or an issue paid for by interest groups or individuals but not candidates.

501(c) groups

Groups that are exempted from reporting their contributions and can receive unlimited contributions. Section 501c of the tax code specifies that such groups cannot spend more than half their funds on political activities.

527 groups

Independent political groups that are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly seek the election of particular candidates. Section 527 of the tax code specifies that contributions to such groups must be reported to the IRS.

free-rider problem

For a group, the problem of people not joining because they can benefit from the group's activities without joining.

iron triangles

Also known as subgovernment s, a mutually dependent, mutually advantageous relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. Iron triangles dominate some areas of domestic policymaking.

lobbying

According to Lester Milbrath, a "communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his or her own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his or her decision."

public interest lobbies

According to Jeffrey Berry, organizations that seek "a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively and materially benefit the membership or activists of the organization."

bundling

PACs collect contributions from like-minded individuals (each limited to $5000) and present them to a candidate or political party as a "bundle," thus increasing the PAC's influence.

campaign contributions

Donations that are made directly to a candidate or a party and that must be reported to the FEC. As of 2012, individuals were allowed to donate up to $2,500 per election to a candidate and up to $30,800 to a political party.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

A 2010 landmark Supreme Court case that ruled that individuals, corporations, and unions could donate unlimited amounts of money to groups that make independent political expenditures.

Federal Election Campaign Act

A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances. The act created the Federal Election Commission and provided for limits on and disclosure of campaign contributions.

independent expenditures

Expenses on behalf of a political message that are made by groups that are uncoordinated with any candidate's campaign.

political action committees

Groups that raise money from individuals and then distribute it in the form of contributions to candidates that the group supports. PACs must register with the FEC and report their donations and contributions to it. Individual contributions to a PAC are limited to $5,000 per year and a PAC may give up to $5,000 to a candidate for each election.

soft money

Political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grassroots level or for generic party advertising. For a time, such contributions were unlimited, until they were banned by the McCain-Feingold Act.

Super PACs

Independent expenditure-only PACs are known as Super PACs because they may accept donations of any size and can endorse candidates. Their contributions and expenditures must be periodically reported to the FEC.

hard money

Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amounts and fully disclosed. Raising such limited funds is harder than raising unlimited funds, hence the term hard money.

statute

A written law passed by a legislative body.

issue network

Relationships among interest groups, congressional committees and subcommittees, and the government agencies that share a common policy concern.

single-issue groups

Groups that have a narrow interest on which their members tend to take an uncompromising stance.

grassroots

A form of pressure-group activity that attempts to involve individuals who contact their representatives directly in an effort to to affect policy.

revolving door

Employment cycle in which individuals who work for governmental agencies that regulate interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern.

union shop

A provision found in some collective bargaining agreements requiring all employees of a business to join the union within a short period, usually 30 days, and to remain members as a condition of employment.

right-to-work laws

A state law forbidding requirements that workers must join a union to hold their jobs. State right-to-work laws were specifically permitted by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947.

selective benefits

Goods that a group can restrict to those who actually join.

incentive system

An alternative to command-and-control, with marketlike strategies such as rewards used to manage public policy.

caucus

A system for selecting convention delegates used in about a dozen states in which voters must attend an open meeting to express their presidential preference.

open primaries

Elections in which voters are not required to affiliate with a political party and may vote for any candidate on the ballot.

closed primaries

Elections to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party's candidates, thus encouraging greater party loyalty.

national convention

The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform.

open primaries

Elections to select party nominees in which voters can decide on Election Day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contests.

general election

Elections in which voters elect officeholders.

invisible primary

The period before any votes are cast when candidates compete to win early support from the elite of the party and to create a positive first impression of their leadership skills.

mandate theory of elections

The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.

name recognition

Incumbents have an advantage over challengers in election campaigns because voters are more familiar with them, and incumbents are more recognizable.

national party convention

The supreme power within each of the parties. The convention meets every four years to nominate the party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to write the party's platform.

nomination

The official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party. Generally, success in the nomination game requires momentum, money, and media attention.

primary election

Elections in which voters determine party nominees for the general election.

superdelegates

National party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot at the national party convention.

incumbents

Those already holding office. In congressional elections, incumbents usually win.

lame duck

A politician who can not run for office again or whose successor has been elected but not taken over.

presidential coattails

These occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president's party because they support the president. Recent studies show that few races are won this way.

Twelfth Amendment

The election of the president and vice president are by the electoral college: should there be no majority vote for one person, the House of Representatives (one vote per state) chooses the president and the Senate the vice president.

Twentieth amendment

Synced up the inauguration dates for the President and the start of Congress into January, shortening the time period when a sitting president would be in office while knowing he was not returning.

vice president

According to the Constitution, the role of the VP is to be a spare in case of the death or removal of the President. He presides over the Senate, but cannot enter debate and can only vote in case of a tie.

direct mail

A method of raising money for a political cause or candidate, in which information and requests for money are sent to people whose names appear on lists of those who have supported similar views or candidates in the past.

jungle primary

A nominating process in which voters indicate their preferences by using a single ballot on which are printed the names and respective party labels of all persons seeking nomination. A candidate who receives more than 50 percent of the vote is elected; otherwise, a runoff between the top two candidates must be held.

redistricting

The redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census, to accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population.

safe seat

Elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of the party's candidate is almost taken for granted.

single-member district

An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official.

apportionment

The process by which House seats are distributed to the states after each Census is taken.

constituency

A body of voters in a specified area who elect a representative to a legislative body.

Seventeenth Amendment

Amendment which changed the method of selection of U.S. Senators from the state legislatures to the people of the state.

bandwagon

People doing something primarily because other people are doing it, regardless of their own beliefs.

battleground states

The key states that the presidential campaigns focus on because they are most likely to decide the outcome of the Electoral College vote.