Unit 1 AP Psychology

Updated very weekly

Evolutionary Psychology

• The study of how traits/behaviors evolved to enhance survival & reproductive success

Natural Selection

• Process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive & reproduce, passing traits to offspring

Nature “Genes”

• Biological and genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, & behavior

• Example: Traits inherited from parents, chance of inheriting mental health conditions

Nuture “Environment”

• The environment influences an individual’s psychological development, traits, & behavior

• Example: Social relationships, educational opportunities, socioecnomic status

Twin Studies

• Examines similarities & differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygoti) twins to assess the influence of genetics/environment on traits/behaviors

Adoption Studies

• Investigates similarities between adopted children & their biological/adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics vs. environment on traits/behaviors

Family Studies

• Analyzes the similarities & differences among family members to understand the interplay of genetics & environment in shaping traits & behaviors within a family unit.

Heredity

• The transfer of genetic info from parents to offspring

Genetic Predisposition

• The inherited likelihood of developing specific traits/conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

Eugenics

• The belief of improving the genetic quality of a population by controlling reproduction to inc desirable traits & dec “undesirable” traits

Cerebral Cortex (Grey Matter)

• The outermost layer of the cerebrum, made of grey matter, is the brain processor containing neurons and white matter, the cables that transmit signals between different areas of the brain & the cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like thinking, perceiving, & decision making

Lobes of the Brain

• 4 main regions into which the cerebral cortex is divided into: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobe

Association Areas

• Parts of the brain that take info from all over the place—like what we see, hear, smell, & touch and put it together to understand the world around us

Frontal Lobes

• Located at the front of the brain & involved in higher level cognitive functions like problem solving, planning, & personality expression

Prefrontal Cortex

• Region of the brain located in the frontal lobe responsible for higher level cognitive functions & executive functioning

• Executive functioning: set of cognitive processes that enable individuals 2 plan/organize

Motor Cortex (front)

• Responsible for planning, executing, & controlling voluntary movements of the body by sending signals to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions (walking, talking, holding)

Parietal Lobes

• Located at the top of the brain & are primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

• Located in the parietal lobe responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, & joints by perceiving sensory stimuli (texture, temp, pressure, pain)

Occipital Lobes

• Located at the back of the brain responsible for processing info received from the eyes

• The primary visual cortex is situated within the occipital lobes that receive visual info from your eyes

Temporal Lobes

• Located on the sides of the brain involved in processing auditory info, language comprehension, & memory

• Contains auditory cortex that interprets sound waves from the ears

Corpus Callosum

• Thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left & right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication between them

Brainstem

• Oldest part of the brain responsbile for basic life sustaining functions like breathing, heart rate, & sleep-wake cycles

• Pathway for neural signals traveling between the brain & rest of the body by connecting the cerebral cortex to spinal cord

Medulla Oblongata

• Located at the base of the brainstem that relays nerve signals between the brain & spinal cord, regulating autonomic functions: heartbeat, breathing, & BP

• Example: When working out the medulla oblongate detects the inc in activity & sends signals to adjust your heart rate

Reticular Activating System

• Network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates arousal & consciousness

Cerebellum

• Located at the back of the brain below the cerebral hemisphere that coordinates movement, balance, & posture to translate into motor movements

Limbic System

• Located beneath the cerebral cortex is a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, & motivation

Reward Center

• Network of brain structures in the limbic system that processes pleasurable experiences & reinforces behaviors associate d with them

Thalamus

• Processes & relays sensory information (5 senses info) to the cerebral cortex by directing signals to the appropriate areas of the brain

Hypothalamus

• Small structures located before the thalamus responsible for regulating homeostasis in the body

Pituitary Gland

• Small pea-sized gland at the base of the brain called the master gland that coordinates hormonal activity for homeostasis bc it regulates hormone production & secretion thru out the body

Hippocampus

• Responsible for forming & consolidating new/long-term memories

Amygdala

• Almong structure in the temporal lobe that processes emotions by playing a central role in the body’s threat detection system, triggering flight & fight response

The Nervous System

• Your body’s communication & control center that sends messages & interprets them to decide how to respond

Central Nervous System

• Brain & Spinal cord that is the command center of body processing info, coordinating responses, & regulating bodily functions thru spinal cord transmitting sensory info from the body => brain & motor commands from brain => body

Peripheral Nervous System

• The nerves & ganglia outside the brain & spinal cord that transmits sensory info from the body to the CNS

Autonomic Nervous System

• Division of PNS that regulates involuntary body functions consisting of 2 main branches: sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous System

• Activates the body’s fight or flight response by inc heart rate, dilates airways, & redirects blood 2 essential organs

Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Promotes relaxation & restoring the body to a calmer state after experiencing stress by dec heart rate, constrict airways, & enhance digestion

Somatic Nervous System

• Division of the PNS responsible for controlling voluntary movements & relaying sensory info from the body => CNS

Neurons

• A specialized cell that transmits electrical signals throughout the body

Structure of the Neuron

• Cell Body (soma): Main part of the neuron that contains the nucleus

• Dendrites: short, branching extensions that receive signals from other neurons & transmit them toward the cell body

• Axon: A long, slender projection that carries signals away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands

• Axon Terminals (Terminal Buttons): At the end of the axon there are small swellings that release neurotransmitters to communicate w/ neighboring neurons

• Myelin Sheath: A fatty, insulating layer that surrounds some axons to speed up the transmission of electrical signals

• Synapse: Junction between 2 neurons where communication occurs where neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminals of 1 neuron & received by the dendrite/cell body of another neuron

Glial Cells

• “Support cells” that provide structural support, insulation, & nourishment to neurons to maintain brain health & functioning

Motor Neurons

• Nerve cells that transmit signals from the CNS to the muscles, initiating & controlling voluntary/involuntary movements

Sensory Neurons

• Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory info from sensory receptors that detect physical stimuli & converts into electrical signals processed by the CNS

Interneurons

• Nerve cells that are connectors within the CNS that relay signals between sensory neurons & motor neurons

Reflex Arc

• Neural pathway that controls reflex actions to sensory stimuli w/o the brain as signals travel from sensory neurons to your spinal cord

Plasticity

• When areas of the brain are damaged, the neural connections will re-route so that functions can be regained w/ minimal cognitive damage

Neural Transmission

• Process by which neurons communicate w/ each other via electrical & chemical signals

Threshold

• The level of stimulation required to produce a response in a neuron

• Increasing the lvl of stimulation above the threshold causes more neurons to fire more often

Action Potential

• The rapid electrical impulse that travels down the axon with the inside of the cell being more positively charged than the outside

All-or-Nothing Principle

• States that neurons fire with a full strength impulse to generate an action potential only if stimulation reaches a minimum threshold

• No half firing

Depolarization

• When the inside of the neuron becomes less negative due to the influx of positively charged ions (sodium ions), it moves the cell membrane’s potential closer to the threshold = which triggers the neuron to fire an action potential

Refractory Period

• A brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential

Resting Potential

• The state in which the inside of a neuron has a stable negative charge (more negative) relative to the outside, while the neuron is not actively transmitting signals

Reuptake

• The process by which neurotransmitters released during the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron of origin

Multiple Sclerosis “MS”

• Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the CNS when the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath

Myasthenia Gravis

• An autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction during synapse, where nerve impulses are transmitted to the muscles, when the immune system’s antibodies destroy the neuromuscular connection

Synapse for Neural Transmission

• Presynaptic Terminal (Axon terminal): The end of the axon of the presynaptic neuron where NTs are stored in synaptic vesicles

• Synaptic Cleft: Tiny gap between the presynaptic terminal & postsynaptic neuron

• Postsynaptic Neuron: Neighboring neuron that receives NTs from AT

• Postsynaptic Membrane: The membrane of the dendrite/cell body of the postsynaptic neuron, which contains receptors for neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters: chemical messages released from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane

• Receptors: Protein molecules embedded in the postsynaptic membrane that bind to neurotransmitters, leading to changes in the postsynaptic neuron’s electrical activity

• Ion Channels: protein channels in the postsynaptic membrane that allow ions to flow into/out of the neuron in response to neurotransmitter binding, generating postsynaptic potentials

Neurotransmitters

• Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons for communication are divided into 2 types: Excitatory & Inhibitory

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

• Chemicals released by neurons that inc the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

Glutamate

• Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS involved in learning & memory in the hippocampus

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

• Chemicals released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

GABA

• Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS that promotes relaxation (surplus: ED) & reduces anxiety (deficit: insomnia)

Dopamine

• Key neurotransmitter in the brain’s reward system that regulates mood causing you to feel good

• Surplus: Addiction bc makes u feel good = cocaine

• Deficit: Anxiety disorders

Serotonin

• Makes you feel happy, which is essential in mental health, and influences emotional well-being

• Surplus: Hallucinations

• Deficit: Depression

Endorphins

• Released in response to intense physical activity, acting as a natural pain reliever & mood enhancer

• Surplus: Hurt yourself & not know

• Deficit: Body experiences intense pain

Substance P

• Contributes to the perception of pain by binding to nerve cells in the spinal cord

Acetylcholine

• NT fundamental to muscle movement and function

• Surplus: muscle spasms

• Deficit: Paralysis

Hormones

• Chemical messengers made by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to the pituitary and other target glands, signaling them to release hormones that affect body and brain functions.

Ghrelin

• Hormone produced by the stomach that stimulus appetite (in hypothalamus) 

Leptin

• Hormone produced by fat cells that regulates appetite by acting on the hypothalamus

Melatonin

• A hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythm (body’s natural internal 24 hr clock) released from 10pm-2am

Oxytocin

• Love hormone in social bonding for trust and intimacy

Adrenaline

• Hormone that preps the body for fight or flight response released by adrenal glands by inc HR/breath & dilates pupils

Norepinephrine

• A hormone released by the adrenal glands that enhances memory formation during the fight or flight response to sharpen focus

Split Brain Research

• A field of neuroscience that studies the functions of the two hemispheres of the brain after they have been surgically separated in a procedure called corpus callosotomy to treat epilepsy

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

• The left side of the brain primarily controls and receives sensory information from the right side of the body, and the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body

Hemispheric Specialization

• Explored thru split brain research describing how left hemisphere of brain handles language and logical processing while right hemisphere focuses on creativity and emotion

Linguistic Processing

• The complex cognitive processes involved in understanding & producing language

Broca’s Area

• Located in frontal lobe responsible for producing speech

Broca’s Aphasia

• Language disorder caused by stroke, leading to difficulty in producing speech & forming sentences

Wernicke’s Area

• In temporal lobe responsible for understanding speech

Wernicke’s Aphasia

• Language disorder caused by stroke leading to diffulcyt understanding spoken & written language

Electroencephalogram “EEG”

• Non-invasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the brain to diagnose epilepsy & sleep disorders

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging “fMRI”

• Neuroimaging technique used to measure brain activity via changes in blood flow & oxygen lvls to observe the areas of the brain active during stimuli

• Show brain activity by showing different regions in brighter or darker colors indicating diff amounts of blood flow

Lesioning

• Research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging areas of the brain in test animals

Consciousness

• The state of being aware to perceive one’s thoughts and surroundings

Circadian Rhythm

• The 24-hour internal biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle that responds to light (awake) and darkness (night) in an organism's environment.

Jet Lag

• Temporary disruption of the body’s circadian rhythm due to travel across multiple time zones, resulting in sleep disturbances as the body adjusts to a new time zone

Shift Work

• Employment schedules outside of typical daytime hours that disrupt the body’s circadian rhythm

• Inc risks of health problems b/c mismatch between work hrs & body’s internal clock

NREM Stage 1

• The first stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep by beginning to fall asleep that lasts 5-10 minutes characterized by falling in/out of sleep:

  • Brain waves slow down, muscles relax, & hypnic jerks (sudden muscle contractions) 

  • Theta waves present 

• During this time, you are just falling asleep and can be easily awakened. Unless you are awakened, you will only be in Stage 1 once during the night

NREM Stage 2

• Light stage of sleep lasting around 20 minutes characterized by autonomic functions decreasing:

  • Brain waves further slow down, sleep spindles (brief bursts of high frequency periodically appear that show a person is asleep) appear as well as k complexes (bursts of low frequency and slightly higher amplitude waves)

  • Theta Waves

Note: this is the stage that the cycle repeats back to (not Stage 1)

NREM Stage 3

• Deepest stage of sleep characterized by the presence of delta waves, (lower in frequency & higher in amplitude) becoming least responsive to external stimuli where restoration of resources occur: process during sleep where the body/brain replenishes energy, repair tissues, & remove waste products

• Critical for declarative/explicit memories (facts, vocabulary, studying for a test).

REM Sleep

• Paradoxical stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, & muscle paralysis of voluntary muscles associated w/ increased brain activity

• Important in processing EMOTIONAL memories & connections

• After Stages 3-4, you move into a lighter sleep known as REM sleep. This very important stage of sleep replaces Stage 1. Each cycle (Stages 1-3) lasts approximately 90 minutes, and as the night progresses, your time in REM sleep increases. Each cycle has periods of both light and deep sleep.

REM Rebound

• The phenomenon where the body increases the time spent in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation = more intense REM sleep episodes

Activation-Synthesis (Dreams) Theory 1

• First theory proposing that dreams are a result of random neural activity in the brainstem during REM sleep which is interpreted & synthesized by the cerebral cortex into a story

Consolidation-Theory (Dreams) Theory 2

• Second theory suggesting that dreams play a role in memory consolidation & processing 

• During sleep, the brain organizes info acquired throughout the day, contributing to memory storage & learning

Insomnia

• Sleep disorder characterized by difficulty in faling/staying/restorative asleep leading to daytime impairment

• Must occur for at least a couple of weeks to properly diagnose

Narcolepsy

• Sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness

Sleep Apnea

• Sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts