Unit 2 AP Psychology

Evolutionary Psychology

• The study of how traits/behaviors evolved to enhance survival & reproductive success

Natural Selection

• Process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive & reproduce, passing traits to offspring

Nature “Genes”

• Biological and genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, & behavior

• Example: Traits inherited from parents, chance of inheriting mental health conditions

Nuture “Environment”

• The environment influences an individual’s psychological development, traits, & behavior

• Example: Social relationships, educational opportunities, socioecnomic status

Twin Studies

• Examines similarities & differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygoti) twins to assess the influence of genetics/environment on traits/behaviors

Adoption Studies

• Investigates similarities between adopted children & their biological/adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics vs. environment on traits/behaviors

Family Studies

• Analyzes the similarities & differences among family members to understand the interplay of genetics & environment in shaping traits & behaviors within a family unit.

Heredity

• The transfer of genetic info from parents to offspring

Genetic Predisposition

• The inherited likelihood of developing specific traits/conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

Eugenics

• The belief of improving the genetic quality of a population by controlling reproduction to inc desirable traits & dec “undesirable” traits

Cerebral Cortex (Grey Matter)

• The outermost layer of the cerebrum, made of grey matter, is the brain processor containing neurons and white matter, the cables that transmit signals between different areas of the brain & the cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like thinking, perceiving, & decision making

Lobes of the Brain

• 4 main regions into which the cerebral cortex is divided into: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobe

Association Areas

• Parts of the brain that take info from all over the place—like what we see, hear, smell, & touch and put it together to understand the world around us

Frontal Lobes

• Located at the front of the brain & involved in higher level cognitive functions like problem solving, planning, & personality expression

Prefrontal Cortex

• Region of the brain located in the frontal lobe responsible for higher level cognitive functions & executive functioning

• Executive functioning: set of cognitive processes that enable individuals 2 plan/organize

Motor Cortex (front)

• Responsible for planning, executing, & controlling voluntary movements of the body by sending signals to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions (walking, talking, holding)

Parietal Lobes

• Located at the top of the brain & are primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

• Located in the parietal lobe responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, & joints by perceiving sensory stimuli (texture, temp, pressure, pain)

Occipital Lobes

• Located at the back of the brain responsible for processing info received from the eyes

• The primary visual cortex is situated within the occipital lobes that receive visual info from your eyes

Temporal Lobes

• Located on the sides of the brain involved in processing auditory info, language comprehension, & memory

• Contains auditory cortex that interprets sound waves from the ears

Corpus Callosum

• Thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left & right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication between them

Brainstem

• Oldest part of the brain responsbile for basic life sustaining functions like breathing, heart rate, & sleep-wake cycles

• Pathway for neural signals traveling between the brain & rest of the body by connecting the cerebral cortex to spinal cord

Medulla

• Located at the base of the brainstem that relays nerve signals between the brain & spinal cord, regulating autonomic functions: heartbeat, breathing, & BP

• Example: When working out the medulla oblongate detects the inc in activity & sends signals to adjust your heart rate

Reticular Activating System

• Network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates arousal, attention, & consciousness by filtering sensory info & modulates brain activity to maintain wakefulness & alertness

Cerebellum

• Located at the back of the brain below the cerebral hemisphere that coordinates movement, balance, & posture via input from sensory systems to translate into motor movements

Limbic System

• Located beneath the cerebral cortex is a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, & motivation

Reward Center

• Network of brain structures in the limbic system that processes pleasurable experiences & reinforces behaviors associate d with them

Thalamus

• Processes & relays sensory information (5 senses info) to the cerebral cortex by directing signals to the appropriate areas of the brain

Hypothalamus

• Small structures located before the thalamus responsible for regulating homeostasis in the body

Pituitary Gland

• Small pea-sized gland at the base of the brain called the master gland that coordinates hormonal activity for homeostasis bc it regulates hormone production & secretion thru out the body

Hippocampus

• Curved structure located in the brain’s temporal lobes forming & consolidating new memories

Amygdala

• Almond structure located in the temporal lobe that processes emotions by playing a central role in the body’s threat detection system, triggering flight & fight response

The Nervous System

• Your body’s communication & control center that sends messages & interprets them to decide how to respond

Central Nervous System

• Brain & Spinal cord that is the command center of body processing info, coordinating responses, & regulating bodily functions thru spinal cord transmitting sensory info from the body => brain & motor commands from brain => body

Peripheral Nervous System

• The nerves & ganglia outside the brain & spinal cord that transmits sensory info from the body to the CNS

Autonomic Nervous System

• Division of PNS that regulates involuntary body functions consisting of 2 main branches: sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous System

• Activates the body’s fight or flight response by inc heart rate, dilates airways, & redirects blood 2 essential organs

Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Promotes relaxation & restoring the body to a calmer state after experiencing stress by dec heart rate, constrict airways, & enhance digestion

Somatic Nervous System

• Division of the PNS responsible for controlling voluntary movements & relaying sensory info from the body => CNS

Neurons

• A specialized cell that transmits electrical signals throughout the body

Structure of the Neuron

• Cell Body (soma): Main part of the neuron that contains the nucleus

• Dendrites: short, branching extensions that receive signals from other neurons & transmit them toward the cell body

• Axon: A long, slender projection that carries signals away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands

• Axon Terminals (Terminal Buttons): At the end of the axon there are small swellings that release neurotransmitters to communicate w/ neighboring neurons

• Myelin Sheath: A fatty, insulating layer that surrounds some axons to speed up the transmission of electrical signals

• Synapse: Junction between 2 neurons where communication occurs where neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminals of 1 neuron & received by the dendrite/cell body of another neuron

Glial Cells

• “Support cells” that provide structural support, insulation, & nourishment to neurons to maintain brain health & functioning

Motor Neurons

• Nerve cells that transmit signals from the CNS to the muscles, initiating & controlling voluntary/involuntary movements

Sensory Neurons

• Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory info from sensory receptors that detect physical stimuli & converts into electrical signals processed by the CNS

Interneurons

• Nerve cells that are connectors within the CNS that relay signals between sensory neurons & motor neurons

Reflex Arc

• Neural pathway that controls reflex actions to sensory stimuli w/o the brain as signals travel from sensory neurons to your spinal cord

Plasticity

• When areas of the brain are injured or damaged, the neural connections will re-route to form new connections so that functions can be regained