The Ultimate Study Guide of Adam -

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Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes the study of your potential, the good in you, and your strengths.

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines how human behavior has been shaped by natural selection and adaptation over time.

Behavioral/Learning Perspective

Focuses on how observable behaviors are learned and influenced by the environment.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Explores how unconscious processes and childhood experiences influence behavior.

Biological Perspective

Examines the biological systems and processes which affect behavior.

Socio-Cultural Perspective

Examines how social and cultural factors influence an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Cognitive Perspective

Examines mental processes such as perception, memory, and thinking.

Biopsychological Perspective

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural analysis to understand human behavior.

Informed Consent

Research participants must be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Protection from Undue Mental Stress and Physical Harm

Research participants must be protected from undue physical or psychological harm.

Debriefing

Participants must receive a post-experimental explanation of the study, including its purpose and any deceptions used.

Deception

Research participants must not be so misled as to invalidate the informed consent.

Confidentiality

Identities of research participants must not be revealed.

Right to Withdraw

Allows a research participant to drop out of a study at any time without penalty.

IRB Approval

Approval must be in place to implement the research protocol.

Survey

Involves asking participants a set list of questions to assess their attitudes or opinions.

Correlation Study

Examines the relationship between two or more variables.

Experiment

Seeks to understand the relationship between cause and effect.

Interview

Involves the researcher asking participants face-to-face questions and recording their answers.

Naturalistic Observation

Involves observing participants in their natural environment without manipulation.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of a single subject or small group.

-can't be replicated

Independent Variable

The manipulated factor in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The measurable factor being studied in an experiment.

EEG Scan

Reads electrical activity of the brain.

PET Scan

Measures metabolic energy used in different parts of the brain.

MRI Scan

Produces a clear 3D image of the structure of the brain.

Lesioning

Destruction of a specific brain part to observe effects on behavior.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

Passes along messages to other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

Insulates axons and speeds impulse transmission.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate ion exchange.

Axon Terminal

Releases neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses.

Serotonin

Affects mood; low levels are associated with depression.

Dopamine

Involved in motor movements and provides feelings of pleasure and reward; imbalance is related to Parkinson's and schizophrenia.

Acetylcholine

Crucial for memory and learning; low levels associated with Alzheimer's.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers; can lead to addiction.

Norepinephrine/Epinephrine

Boost energy, attention, and focus; high levels can lead to ADHD.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates neuronal excitability.

Substance P

Transmits pain signals to the brain.

Glutamate

Facilitator of neurotransmission; excess can lead to cognitive disorders.

Depressants

Calm neural activity and slow the body’s functions ; e.g., alcohol.

Stimulants

Excite neural activity; e.g., caffeine.

Painkillers

Drugs that alleviate pain by interrupting pain signals.

Hallucinogens

Distort perceptions and evoke sensory images; e.g., marijuana.

Gestalt Psychology

Focuses on how we perceive the whole rather than the sum of its parts.

Gestalt Principles

Patterns our brain uses to organize sensory information.

Sensory Adaptation

The way our senses adjust to different stimuli

Transduction

Conversion of stimuli into electrical signals for processing.

Sensation

The process of gathering information about the world.

Perception

The brain's interpretation of sensory information.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli necessary for detection.

Signal Detection Theory

Describes how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus.

Linear Perspective

Depth cue where parallel lines converge in the distance.

Relative Height

Objects higher up in the visual field are perceived as further away.

Relative Size

Larger objects are perceived as closer, smaller as further.

Interposition

When one object obscures another, the obscured object is perceived as further away.

Motion Parallax

Closer objects move faster in our field of vision than farther objects.

Shadows/Light

Light and shadows help determine object position in space.

Circadian Rhythm

The 24-hour cycle regulating sleep and wakefulness.

Narcolepsy

Excessive daytime sleepiness with uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea

Repeated stopping and starting of breathing during sleep.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Acting out dreams due to lack of normal REM paralysis.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep or maintaining sleep.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleepwalking, occurring in NREM sleep.

Night Terrors

Severe nightmares occurring during deep sleep, usually in children.

Sleep Paralysis

State where one remains conscious but unable to move after waking from REM.

NREM Stage 1

Light sleep where relaxation begins and hypnagogic sensations occur.

NREM Stage 2

Light sleep characterized by sleep talking and bursts of electrical activity.

NREM Stage 3

Deep sleep important for bodily restoration, more difficult to wake.

REM Stage

Rapid eye movement period associated with dreaming and memory consolidation.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that initially has no effect until conditioned.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Originally neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after association.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

Extinction Principle

Diminishing of a conditioned response when reinforcement is no longer presented.

Spontaneous Recovery

The re-emergence of a conditioned response after a pause.

Ivan Pavlov

Scientist known for classical conditioning through dog experiments.

John B. Watson

Behaviorist who applied classical conditioning principles to human behavior.

B.F. Skinner

Pioneer of operant conditioning and reinforcement principles.

Albert Bandura

Conducted the Bobo Doll experiment demonstrating social learning theory.

Edward Thorndike

Introduced the Law of Effect in the context of operant conditioning.

Martin Seligman

Studied learned helplessness in dogs.

Wolfgang Kohler

Examined insight learning in chimpanzees.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a stimulus to encourage behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unfavourable stimulus to strengthen behavior.

Positive Punishment

Introducing a negative consequence to reduce behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a positive stimulus to decrease behavior.

Social Learning Theory

Learning through observation and imitation of others.

Primary Reinforcer

Basic biological needs that satisfy immediate requirements.

Secondary Reinforcer

Stimuli that acquire reinforcing qualities through association.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in behavior.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate two stimuli to anticipate an outcome.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences of behavior.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt.