General Biology I Lab Test Two Guide

Enzyme activity is influenced by...

Temperature and pH

____ can alter how well the enzyme and substrate fit together at the ____ site.

pH

Active

____ convert substrate to product most quickly at optimal ____

Enzymes

pH

When are enzymes most active?

Optimal pH

Changing optimal pH can cause enzymes to....

Move more slowly

Bromelian

Protease enzyme found in fresh pineapple juice

What does Bromelian do?

Breaks down proteins of gelatin, so gelatin mixed with fresh pineapple juice won't solidify

Pineapple lab dependent variable

Gelatin formation

Pineapple lab independent variable

Fresh vs. canned pineapple juice

Pineapple lab control group

Gelatin + water

In the oxygen production experiment, what information did the movement of the bubble over a specified distance in the calibrated respirometer provide?

The rate of cellular respiration and the volume of oxygen used

A device that can e used to measure the rate of exchange for oxygen and carbon dioxide during energy acquiring pathways is called a ____.

Respirometer

The steps of cellular respiration include:

1) Glycolysis

1.5) Pyruvate oxidation

2) Citric Acid (Kreb's) Cycle

3) Oxidative Phosphorylation

Reactants and products of Glycolysis

Reactants: glucose, ADP, NAD

Products: pyruvate, ATP NADH

Reactants and products of Pyruvate Oxidation

Reactants: pyruvate, CoA, NAD

Products: acetyl CoA, NADH, CO2

Reactants and products of Citric Acid Cycle

Reactants: acetyl CoA, NAD, FAD, ADP

Products: CoA, CO2, NADH, FADH2, ATP

Reactants and products of Oxidative Phosphorylation

Reactants: NADH, FADH2, O2, ADP

Products: NAD, FAD, H2O, ATP

Anaerobic respiration

Respiration that does not require oxygen

What cells go through anaerobic respiration?

Bacteria and archaea

Products of yeast fermentation

Ethanol and CO2

Lactate fermentation

When NAD is recycled from NADH as pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid and CO2

What are the stages of Mitosis?

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Prophase

The nuclear envelope fragments, chromatin condense, spindle fibers form, and centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

Anaphase

Chromosomes separate at the centromere and the sister chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase

Nuclear envelope reforms, cytokinesis ends, chromatin condense, spindle fibers disappear

What are the phases of Meiosis?

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I

Meiosis II (PMAT) *just like mitosis1

Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes pair up, and is the site of crossing over and synapsis

Metaphase I

Tetras (pairs of homologous chromosomes) line up at metaphase plate

Anaphase I

homologous chromosomes separate, sister chromatids remain attached

Telophase I

2 nuclei form and cytokinesis occurs

Meiosis II

Same thing as Meiosis I, except for one variable; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

Mitosis creates ____ cells

Body

Meiosis creates ____ cells

Reproductive

What does Mitosis do to the chromosome number?

Maintains it

What does Meiosis do to the chromosomes number?

Divides it in half

Stages of Interphase

G1

S

G2

G1 phase of interphase

cell grows: increase in size and synthesize new proteins and organelles

S phase of interphase

DNA replication

G2 phase of interphase

Final sub phase of interphase, and is where the cell completes preparations for cell division

Monohybrid cross

A cross between two individuals heterozygous for one character

Punnett square

A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup

Phenotype

An organism's physical apearance

Alleles

Different variations of a gene

Recessive allele

The allele that has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance

* represented as a lower case letter

Dominant allele

The allele that determines an organism's appearance

* represented as a capital letter

Gametes

Sex cells

* egg and sperm

Autosomes

Any chromosomes that is not a sex chromosome

Sex linked traits

Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes.

What is the chance that a carrier female will have sons with the trait? Daughters? Carriers

If the father is affected by the disease

* sons affected: 1/2

* daughters affected: 1/2

* daughters who are carriers: 1/2

If the father is not affect by the disease

* sons affected: 1/2

* daughters affected: 0

* daughters who are carriers: 1/2

Pedigrees

A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family

* family tree

How do you read and notate a pedigree?

Follow the path of each set of parents to their child

* notate men with squares and females with circles

* notate the dominant phenotype by coloring in the entire shape and half the circle for a carrier

Non-disjuction

Failure of attached chromatids to separate during meiosis

Genotype of sex chromosomes abnormalities for Turner syndrome

XO

One normal X or Y chromosome and one defective X or Y chromosome

Genotype of sex chromosomes abnormalities for Klinefelter disorder

XXY

Inheritance pattern of autosomal disorders

Must inherit two mutates gens, one from each parent.

* usually passed on by two carriers

* health is rarely affected, but they have one mutated gene (recessive) and one normal gene (dominant) for the condition

What is the proper process of DNA isolation?

Transfer filtrate to test tube

Dissolve meat tenderizer and add it to test tube

Add ice cold ethanol to test tube

Wait for DNA precipate to form

Spool DNA precipate onto glass rod

What is the purpose of sodium chloride solution in the strawberry experiment?

DNA is released by cell lysis in the solution, which makes the DNA more readily condense when later exposed to alcohol

What is the purpose of the detergent in the strawberry experiment?

Emulsifies membrane lipids and proteins, keeping them from interacting with DNA

What is the purpose of meat tenderizer in the strawberry experiment?

Used to break down the protein complexes and allow the DNA molecules to easily precipate

What is the purpose of cold ethanol in the strawberry experiment?

Causes DNA to precipate (solidify and become visible) while preserving fragile hydrogen bonds, thus preventing damage to the strands

What is DNA isolation?

An important procedure that allows researchers to study how DNA functions

Gel electrophoresis

Separates DNA samples by size

How is gel electrophoresis used in biology?

Used to indicate different genotypes associated with a genetic condition

How is DNA added to the wells in gel electrophoresis?

A comb is used to create wells in the gel and a micropippete is used to drop the DNA into the inventions created

How does DNA run through the gel in electrophoresis?

The negatively charged DNA fragments are attracted to the positive poles

Why is ethidium bromide used to stain the gel?

It binds to the DNA and drill fluoresce under UV light, showing the location of DNA fragments

What is the point of agarose?

It creates the gel

How do you read the results of gel electrophoresis?

Compare the DNA sample with the control lanes for other controls

Structure of DNA

Double helix

Function of DNA

store and transmit genetic information

How do DNA and RNA work together?

DNA sends messages to RNA to be transferred to protein

What do DNA and RNA create?

Proteins

What is a mutation?

Any change in the normal nucleotide sequence that codes for an amino acid