Religious Fundamentalism

In a global context, what has the issue of religious fundamentalism emerged as?

A major area of media and political concern in recent decades, notably in relation to international Islamist terrorism.

What has the term ‘fundamentalist‘ also been applied to?

Followers of other religions besides Islam, including Protestants and Christians.

What are the characteristics of fundamentalists?

They appeal to tradition and often look back for a supposed golden age in the past. They seek a return to the basics of fundamentals of their faith

How is religious fundamentalism different to traditional religion?

It arises only where traditional beliefs and values are threatened or challenged my modern society and especially by the impact of an increasingly globalised economy.

Where can the threat to traditional religions come from?

Outside, for example through capitalist globalisation, the penetration of Western culture or military invasion. It can also come from within, for example when sections of society adopt new secular ideas, such as liberal attitudes to sexuality and gender.

What have sociologists identified?

A number of key features of fundamentalism.

What are the key features of fundamentalism identified by sociologists?

• An authoritative sacred text.

• An ‘us and them‘ mentality.

• Aggressive reaction.

• Use of modern technology.

• Patriarchy.

• Prophecy.

• Conspiracy theories.

For Christian fundamentalists, how is the bible interpreted?

Every word of it is literally true, its truths are valid for all eternity, and it contains the answers to all life’s important questions, from politics to family life. The text is inerrant (without error) and not open to questioning.

What does Aldridge note?

That no text speaks for itself; it has to be interpreted, so in reality what fundamentalists hold to be true is not the text itself, but their interpretation of its meaning. They interpret the bible solely as a set of historical facts and prophecies about the future, ignoring other interpretations of it as poetry, symbolism or metaphor.

What is an ‘us and them‘ mentality?

Fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse to compromise with it.

How does Davie describe the ‘us and them‘ mentality of fundamentalists?

As Davie puts it, they seek to establish islands of certainty against what they see as social and cultural chaos.

What is aggressive reaction?

Fundamentalist movements aim to draw attention to the threat of their beliefs and values, and their reactions are therefore aggressive and intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm. Authoritative leaders such as clergy or elders who interpret the sacred text ate important in giving direction to the reactions.

How do fundamentalists use modern technology?

Although they oppose modern culture, which they see as corrupted by secularism, they are keen to use modern technology to achieve their aims - from computers and the internet to televangelism and weaponry.

What does Hawley note?

That fundamentalists favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality. reproductive powers, and their social and economic roles, is fixed for all time by divine decree.

How is prophecy a feature of fundamentalism, in terms of Christian fundamentalism?

Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to contemporary events. They believe that the ‘last days‘ will soon be upon us, when the faithful dead will be resurrected and transported to heaven with the faithful living, before the seven-year rule of the Antichrist and ultimately the final defeat of Satan in the War of Armageddon.

What are fundamentalists often attracted to?

To conspiracy theories: the idea that powerful, hidden evil forces and organisations are in control of human destiny. Many Christian and Islamic fundamentalists hold anti-Semitic conspiracy theories that believe Jews are conspiring to secure world domination.

As Davie argues, where does fundamentalism occur?

Where those who hold traditional orthodox beliefs and values are threatened by modernity and feel the need to defend themselves against it. In this sense, ‘fundamentalists are themselves products of modernity, in so far as they are born out of the clash between modernity and traditional cultures‘.

What does Giddens argue?

That ‘fundamentalism‘ is a product of and reaction to globalisation, which undermines traditional social norms concerning the nuclear family, gender and sexuality. In today’s ‘late modern‘ society, individuals are constantly faced with choice, uncertainty and risk.

In Giddens view, what is the attraction of fundamentalism and its rigid, dogmatic beliefs ?

It is the certainty that is promises in an uncertain world. IT is a retreat into faith-based answers and away from the risks and uncertainties of a globalising world. Giddens identifies fundamentalist versions of several major religions, including ISlam, Christianity and Hinduism.

What does Giddens contrast fundamentalism with?

Cosmopolitanism - a way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with today’s globalising world.

What is cosmopolitanism tolerant of?

The views of others and open to new ideas, constantly reflecting on and modifying beliefs in the light of new information (reflexivity). I required people to justify their views by the use of rational arguments and evidence rather than appealing to sacred texts.

In cosmopolitanism, what is one’s lifestyle seen as?

A personal choice rather than something prescribed by an external religious or other authority.

What does cosmopolitanism religion and spirituality emphasise?

The pursuit of personal meaning and self-improvement rather than submission to authority. This is very similar to Heavier-Leger’s ‘pilgrims‘ who explore New Age spirituality.

What does Bauman see fundamentalism as?

A response to living in modernity. Postmodern society brings freedom of choice, uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk, undermining the old certainties about how to like that were grounded in tradition. In this situation, while some embrace this new freedom, others are attracted to fundamentalism by its claims of absolute truth and certainty.

What does Castells distinguish between?

Two responses to posmodernity:

• Resistance identity.

• Project identity.

What is a resistance identity?

A defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist communities.

What is a project identity?

The response of those who are forward-looking and engage with social movements such as feminism and environmentalism.

What does Beckford criticise Giddens, Bauman and Castells on the grounds of?

• They distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism, ignoring 'hybrid' movements.

• They are 'fixated on fundamentalism', ignoring other important developments - including how globalisation
  Catholicism.
  is also affecting non-fundamentalist religions such as Giddens lumps all types of fundamentalism together, ignoring important differences between them.

• Giddens description of fundamentalism as a defensive reaction to modernity ignores the fact that reinventing tradition is also a modern, 'reflexive' activity.

What does Haynes argue?

That we should not focus narrowly on the idea that Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction against globalisation. For example, in the Middle East, conflicts caused by the failure of local elites to deliver on their promises to improve the standard of living are often the fuel that drives fundamentalism.

Like GIddens, what does Bruce see the main cause of fundamentalism as?

The perception of religious traditionalists that today’s globalising world threatens their beleifs.

What does Bruce regard fundamentalism as?

As being confined to monotheistic religions. Polytheistic religions that believe in the existence of many gods, such as Hinduism are unlikely to produce fundamentalism.

In Bruce’s view, why is fundamentalism confined to monotheistic religions?

Because monotheistic religions are based on a notion of God’s will revealed through a single, authoritative sacred text. This is believed to contain the actual word of God and it lays down specific rules for believers to follow. By contrast, polytheistic religions lack a single all powerful diet and a single authoritative text so their is much more scope for different interpretations and none has an over-riding claim to legitimacy of absolute truth.

In Bruce’s view, while all fundamentalists share the same characteristics, can different fundamentalist movements have different origins?

No, different fundamentalist movements may have different origins, in particular, some are triggered by changes within their own society and others are a response to changes being trust upon a society from the outisde.

How does Bruce illustrate the distinction between different fundamentalisms?

Using examples of Christian and Islamic fundamentalisms.

In the West, what is fundamentalism most often a reaction to?

In the West, fundamentalism is most often a reaction to change taking place within a society, especially the trends towards diversity and choice typical of secular late modern society.

What is an example of fundamentalism in the West?

For example, the New Christian Right in America has developed in opposition to family diversity, sexual 'permissiveness', gender equality and abortion rights, secular education and the privatisation of religion (its removal from public life). Its aim is to reassert 'true' religion and restore it to a public role where it can shape the laws and morals of wider society.

In the third world, what is fundamentalism usually a reaction to?

Changes being thrust upon a society from outside,in the case of the Islamic revolution in Iran (see below). It is triggered by modernisation and globalisation, in which

What does Davie argue that recent decades have seen?

The emergence of secular forms of fundamentalism. She links this to changes in the nature of modern society.

What does Davie distinguish between?

Two phases of modernity.

What did the first phase of modernity give rise to?

The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism.This phase stretched from the time of the philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment in the late 18th century, to about the 1960s. Enlightenment philosophy held an optimistic secular belief in the certainty of progress based on the power of science and human reason to improve the world. This 'Enlightenment project' dominated European thought and helped to secularise all areas of social life, attacking and undermining religious certainties. Religious fundamentalism is one reaction to this secularisation process.

What did the second phase of modernity give rise to?

The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism. Since the 1970s, the optimism of the Enlightenment project has itself come under attack. This is the result of a growing mood of pessimism and uncertainty.

This mood is the product of the insecurity caused by changes such as globalisation, concerns about the environment and the collapse of communism in 1989. This has led to a loss of faith in the major secular Enlightenment ideologies such as liberalism and rationalism (in Western Europe) and Marxism (in Eastern Europe) whose claims to truth and belief in progress have been undermined.

What happens as a result of modernity giving rise to secular fundamentalism?

These secular ideologies are themselves struggling for survival, just like traditional religion. As Davie puts it, they are ‘past their sell-by date‘. And as with religion when it came under attack, some supporters of secular ideologies such as nationalism have also been attracted to fundamentalism.

In Western Europe, what have perceived religious challenges to liberal secular values provoked?

A secular fundamentalist reaction. For example, in 2004 France, it was banned for pupils to ear religious symbols in school and in 2010, it became illegal for women to wear the veil in public.

What does Andell see trends such as France banning pupils from wearing religious symbols to school as?

A from of cultural racism that uses the apparently liberal language of universal equality and social integration, while denying racist aims. In reality however, it is about preserving cultural identity and ‘our‘ way of life, and it legitimates the exclusion of religious and cultural minorities.

What does Davie conclude about religious and secular movements?

She argues that both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist as the result of the greater uncertainties in life in the late modern or postmodern world, in which reasserting truth and certainty is increasingly attractive. AS a result, competing fundamentalisms have become a normal feature of today’s society.

What does Hervieu-Leger see fundamentalism as?

A form of ‘recreated memories‘ in late modern societies that have suffered ‘cultural amnesia‘ and forgotten their historic religious traditions.

In recent years, what has religion been at the centre of a number of?

A number of global conflicts, such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks by fundamentalist Islamists in the US.

For Huntington, what have religiously motivated conflicts intensified since?

The collapse of communism in 1989 and are symptoms of a ‘clash of civilisations‘. However, for Huntington, the problem is not Islamic fundamentalism, but Islam itself.

What does Huntington identify?

Seven civilisations: Western, Islamic, Latin American, Confucian (China), Japanese, Hindu and Slavic Orthodox.

In today’s world, what are religious conflicts between civilisations a major source of?

Conflict; this is because globalisation has made nation states less significant as a source of identity, creating a gap that religion has filled. At the same time, globalisation increases the contacts between civilisations, increasing the likelihood of conflict.

In Huntington’s view, what are religious differences creating?

A set of hostile ‘us and them‘ relationships, with increased competitions between civilisations for economic and military power, for example in the Middle East. He sees religious differences as harder to resolve than political ones because they are deeply rooted in culture and history

What does Huntington see history as?

A struggle of ‘progress against barbarism‘. He believes the West is under threat, especially from Islam, and urges the West to reassert its identity as a liberal-democratic Christian civilisation.

What does Jackson see Huntington’s work as?

An example of Orientalism - a Western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations and people (especially Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior or fanatical ‘others‘ and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the West.

What does Casanova argue?

That Huntington ignores important religious divisions within the ‘civilisations‘ he identifies.

What do Horrie and Chippindale see ‘the clash of civilisations‘ as?

A grossly misleading neo-conservative ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy. In reality, only a tiny minority of the world’s 1.5 billion Muslims are remotely interested in a ‘holy war‘ against the west.

What does Armstrong argue?

That hostility towards the West does not stem from fundamentalist Islam, but is a reaction to Western foreign policy in the Middle East. The West has propped up oppressive regimes and continues to support Israel despite its aggressive treatment of Palestinians.

What does Huntington’s work suggest?

That the Muslim World holds fundamentally different, anti-democratic values from those in the West. However, this is not the case.

Using data from the World Values Survey, what do Inglehart and Norris conclude?

That the issue that divides the West from the Muslim world is not democracy but gender and sexuality. They find that support for democracy is similarly high in both the West and the Muslim world, but there are great differences when it comes to attitudes to divorce, abortion, gender equality and gay rights. While Western attitudes have become more liberal, in the Muslim world they remain traditional.

What do Inglehart and Norris comment?

That in the last decade, democracy has become the political ideology to gain global appeal, but there is no global agreement about self-expression values, such as tolerance of diversity, gender equality and freedom of speech. In the view, 'these divergent values constitute the real clash of civilisations between Muslim societies and the West'.