Imperial Russia 1853-1917: Alexander II & Alexander III

Key points about: Imperial Russia 1853-1917: Alexander II & Alexander III

A profile of Russia prior to 1853.

Russia was socially, politically, and technologically behind other European countries of similar size, it was economically backwards. A agrarian society, run by an autocratic monarchy and still operating under the feudal system. With 90% of it's population being serfs, Russia had no middle class. The lack of a middle class meant Russia lacked the drive for development that lead other similar European countries to industrialisation and modernisation of the economy. Russisa also had a lot of land which was sparsely populated making it difficult to rule/control the country for the Tsar.

Why was it considered necessary to emancipate the serfs? (Economic Argument)

Emancipation was needed for Russian industrialisation as the nobles and government were falling deeper into debt as traditional agricultural practices failed to gain surplus to export (also impacted by the increase in population at the start of the century, which increased internal consumption). Agricultural stagnation meant that serfs were struggling to pay taxes and owed the government over 50 million in tax arreas by 1855.

Why was it considered necessary to emancipate the serfs? (Military Argument)

Alfred Reiber had argued that serfdom had to be abolished in preparation for reforming the Russian army, along the western lines. Russia could no-longer have a peacetime army and maintaining a conscript army was too costly and inefficient. Reformist Dmitri Milyutin argued conscripts should spend less time on active service and instead should serve a short time in the armed forced for training and them spend longer in 'reserves'.

However, if the army were to demobilise serfs there was the fear they would lead peasant uprisings, so in order to protect both internal and external security, serfdom would have to be abolished before implementing changes in the army.

Why was it considered necessary to emancipate the serfs? (Moral and intellectual Argument)

Intellectual argued the need for change on the basis that serfdom and bondage was morally wrong, and that serfdom did not meet humanitarian standard that was expected of a civilised society.

Why was it considered necessary to emancipate the serfs? (Practical Argument)

There was a growing sentiment of discontent amongst the peasants, with over 300 uprisings in the decade before the Crimean War. The longer it took for Alexander II to make real changes, the higher the levels of tension within the country grew. Despite being a police state, Russian authorities were struggling to keep control.

Steps to emancipation (Timeline)

1857 - Alexander II sets a secret committee to investigate whether emancipation would be possible.
1858 - Alexander gave up on secrecy, and did a personal tour of the country.
November 1857 - 'Nasimov rescript' made the government's principles on emancipation clear, one of these included giving serfs their own land. (However, despite this, he said that landowners concerns would be prioritised)
1860 - Alexander stated that "Emancipation is vital and necessary"
To silence any disputes Alexander increased censorship again and to ease concerns established a new Commission of 38 under Nikolai Milyutin.

FINALLY: The edict was read out in all churches across the country on the 19th of February, 1861, however the legalistic and obscure nature of the language used, meant that most serfs didn't actually understand what it meant. Furthermore, the decree did not actually come into effect until the 5th of march.

Emancipation Edict

Around 23 million serfs were granted freedom, meaning they could marry, own property, and move without their landowner's permission. The nobility received payments for losing their labor force, often at the expense of the peasants & the peasants were tied to local communes called 'mirs', which controlled land redistribution and tax collection, limiting their independence. For many emancipation was extremely anti-climatic as it only applied to previously owned serfs, and took place in three stages.

Stages of emancipation (Freedom)

Over 23 million serfs were freed, receiving the right to marry, move and own property. Although they still had to continue their labour for another 2 years.

Stages of emancipation (Temporary Obligation)

Still had to pay landlords rent and were under their control until they could redeem their land. That amount of land was to be negotiated between the peasants and the landowners, and the period of temporary obligation only ended when the landlord decided.

Stages of emancipation (Redemption Payments)

Peasants began to pay for their land allotments with redemption payments, the amount was divided up into 49 annual payments with a 6% interest. Peasants lived in mirs, which formed a volost. The administrative and judicial authority of the landowners was handed over to the mirs and volosts, who then became responsible for ensuring that the Emancipation Edict was enforced. The Freed serfs had to remain in their Mir until their redemption payments were complete.

Results of the edict

Certain landowners used the compensation payments to write off their debts and invest, thus increasing their own wealth. Some peasants (called kulaks, or 'lucky peasants') did benefit by buying out other peasants, forming a subclass of relatively wealthy people.

The edict seemed to fufill some of Alexander's wider aims (Russian Industry expanded, Cities, Banks and communications also grew, Grain production increased in Ukraine due to transportation improvements)

However, many benefited little from it;

• Peasants with poor land and high reparation payments struggled to survive.
• Peasents lost 20% of their former land and over 50% couldn't farm and produce enough to sell.
• Mirs could be as oppressive as the landowners.
• Landowners also faced disputes over landholdings and payments, leading to peasant unrest.

Local government reforms (Alexander II)

Nobles had lost legal and judicial control over serfs and so reforms of local government were needed. Peasants were governed by zemstva which were elected local governments that controlled schools, healthcare, infrastructure, agriculture, and poverty relief.

Zemstva and dumas (a smaller division of local government) improved hygiene, literacy, and welfare, although results in easing famines, caring for the poor, and minimizing epidemics were less positive. But also Local professionals were motivated to work because of the reforms.

Unfortunatly, Not universal; only in 43 of 70 provinces by 1914 and limited power as they depended on central government funding. Voting system also favoured landowners and wealthy elites.

Local government reforms (Alexander II): Impact & Opposition

Benefits: Exposed peasants to reformist ideas and increased political awareness, contributing to revolutionary sentiment.

Issues: The tsar did not transform the system into a national assembly because he feared losing power & Opposition to the reforms from landowners

Military Reforms (Alexander II)

Dmitriy Milyutin became the Minister of defence from 1861, he wanted to close the gap between Russian army & Prussian army. From 1863-65 about 1 million conscripted peasants died from reasons other than combat. His policies led the army to becoming smaller and more efficient. Furthermore, In 1874 Milyutin released the Conscription Act. This meant men with formal education had shorter terms of active service and those with no education were taught to read. He also helped to regain Russia's International reputation when they won a war against Turkey in 1877-78.

Military Reforms (Alexander II): Continued Military Weakness

The war against Turkey uncovered numberous failures and disorganized ascepts of the army. There were still a large number of illiterate recruits. Wealthy individuals could find replacements instead of serving in the army themselves. The officer class remained largely aristocratic. Russia was still behind the West in terms of producing modern military equipment. Russia lost a war with Japan in 1905 and again in WWI with Germany

Military Reforms (Alexander II): Milyutin's policies.

Brutal training practices (such as 'running the gauntlet' and floggings) were banned. In 1868 he reduced the required military service time to 10 years. He established cadet / military officer training schools so non-nobles could be officers (promotion was based on skills rather than status). Modernized military technology (e.g. modern rifles and steel battleships).

Legal Reforms (Alexander II): Old System

Prior to the Emancipation Edict, the justice system in Russia was inefficient, slow, socially discriminatory, and incredibly corrupt. Trials would take place in secret. Judges didn't have proper qualifications or training. Assumed guilty until proven innocent. In 1862, work began for a new legal code. In November 1864, Alexander issued a law; "to establish in Russia, courts of justice that are swift, fair, merciful, and equal to all our subjects; to raise the authority of the judiciary and to give it the independence that benefits it."

Legal Reforms (Alexander II): New system

The new system was based on French & British court systems and introduced the adversarial system to Russian courts for the first time: The accused would have a defense lawyer. A jury would be composed of wealthy people who would deliver the verdict and decide on the sentence. The rights of the defendant would be taken into account. Courts would no longer be secret and the press were allowed to report on trials. Judges were given proper training and better pay (to decrease the incentive for corruption).

The new legal system gave Russia one of the most progressive legal systems in Europe at that time:
A court hierarchy was established; Town courts → Crown courts → Senate (the final court of appeal)
The new legal system was much fairer + better organised
Most importantly the fundamental principle that the judiciary was separate from the legislative powers and executive authority of the state was established - known as 'the separation of powers'

Legal Reforms (Alexander II): Limitations

Juries couldn't take cases involving treason. The government lacked the income to extend the court systems to the villages so they still had the traditional volost courts, which operated differently and had different punishments (including corporal punishment)

Legal Reforms (Alexander II): Results

Introduced the theory of equality before the law and helped bring impartial justice. Reforms provided a forum for voicing critical opinions, making the regime more aware of public opinion. However, this also weakened the government by allowing critics to speak out. Alexander II never considered the problem of reconciling a fairer and more impartial judicial system with autocracy. Once the dangers of open jury trials were revealed, the government tried to reverse some of the earlier reforms

Financial / Economic Developments (Alexander II)

Russia lacked a middle class as 90% of the population were former serfs. Reutern was appointed as Finance Minister in 1862, he Reformed the treasury, set up the state bank in 1860, Promoted municipal banks in 1862 and a saving bank in 1869, helped put the national currency on stronger footing, gave opportunities to those who wanted to borrow for businesses, promoted trade by reducing import/export duties in 1863 Expanded the railroad network (7x increase in amount of railway tracks).

Financial / Economic Developments (Alexander II): Results

Older industries such as iron, coal, and textiles were modernized and expanded with the use of foreign technical expertise. Agriculture also boomed because of emancipation and reduced tariffs

Cultural and educational reforms (Alexander II): Censorship

Before 1855 (under Nicholas I) all books and newspapers had to be submitted to the government censor, strict controls had been put in place and any writers who criticised the regime were sent to the Siberian prison camps.

In 1863 (under alexander II) , censorship was made the responsibility of the ministry of the interior and in 1865 a new set of rules was issued for writers and editors: Daily newspapers no longer had to be submitted for censorship prior to publication & books and periodicals over 160 pages and all academic works no longer needed prior approval.

Cultural and educational reforms (Alexander II): Censorship + gov issues

To protect itself against the effects of subversive or damaging literature the government warned that the ministry could still order the withdrawal of publications and prosecute the publishers, but this threat was ineffective as it was tricky for authorities to respond to dangerous articles without breaching state security. Additionally if a newspaper was fined or closed down readers would automatically assume that the government had something to hide.

Cultural and educational reforms (Alexander II): Censorship results

For the first time, Russian newspaper were able to discuss both international and domestic politics, this meant information and ideas circulated more freely, and bold editors with strong financial backing could push the boundaries and build up a curious and committed readership.

Cultural and educational reforms (Alexander II): Education

Nikolai Pirogov, Konstantin Ushinsky and Alexander Golovin (minister for education), campaigned to bring more widespread, effective, and less class-driven education to Russia. Favoring an education system that would create 'whole men', rather than rote-learners.

Cultural and educational reforms (Alexander II): University Statute (1863)

Implemented by Golovin; Increased universities autocracy and academic freedom, they were encouraged to establish their own research programmes and teaching syllabuses, and to disciple their own students.

A reform of higher-education was fundamental for Russia's modernisation, requiring experts in both administration and economics. But it raised issues for the government as reform would allow more critical and independent thinkers.

The reforms led to a huge increase in the number of students attending university and allowed for students from non-noble backgrounds to have access to university education.

Cultural and educational reforms (Alexander II): The Secondary Education Statute (1864)

Made it easier to open schools, as long as certain basic moral and religious principals were upheld. Education become much freer and became open to children of all classes and religions as the church no longer controlled the schools. Generally, education expanded but remained costly for peasants.

Cultural and educational reforms (Alexander II): Elementary Education Statute (1865)

Education reforms led to a rapid growth in the number of schools, in 1856 only 400,000 children attended primary schools, this increased to over a million by 1878. The zemstva (local governments) helped to fund these expansions and ran half the schools Increased literacy, but church influence remained.

Church reforms (Alexander II)

In 1858 a report revealed many Orthodox priest were too poor or illiterate to care for their population and many bishops were criticized for only caring about politics
The weak state of the church was alarming because the government relied on the church to maintain control
1862 - Valuev set up a committee to investigate the situation of the church
In 1869 reforms were made so capable priests could rise to leadership positions, but by this time, many of Alexander II's other reforms were weakening, so little church reforms were made

Alexander II's treatment of minority groups (The Finns)

Alexander believed in responding to their independence instead of controlling them with force. Finnish was allowed to be spoken and a Finnish currency was created Finnish soldiers only served in Finland rather than the rest of Russia.

Alexander II's treatment of minority groups (The Poles)

Poland was supposed to keep its own constitution and just have the Tsar as the king, but Russia imposed its own culture on Poland. Many poles had believed that when Alexander became Tsar he would make concessions.

Alexander II's treatment of minority groups (The Poles): Changes

Alexander relaxed restrictions on Catholicism and the Polish language and in 1861 he made a committee to consider Polish grievances. Poles had more local autonomy, and were allowed displays of Polish national identity. Polish nobles were allowed to form their own nationalist organisation (the Agricultural Society of Poland). However, Alexander did not follow up these initial concessions with any others. In 1861, ignoring the Polish demands for a separate constitution led to nationalist demonstrations in which hundreds were killed, wounded or arrested

Alexander II's treatment of minority groups (The Poles): January Uprising

Attempts to to push Polish nationalists into the imperial Russian army in 1863, led to the formation of a Polish Central National Committee, that declared Poland to be in a state of rebellion against Russian rule. Polish rebels held out for 16 months but were eventually crushed by Russian armed forces Divisions within polish society (mainly caused by result of Russian policy to win over Polish peasants by giving them more land and more power to communes) allowed for the Russian victory
Rebel leaders were executed and 80,000 poles were exiled to Siberia. By 1866, the kingdom of Poland was destroyed, lost its status and became the Vistula region of the Russian Empire.

Alexander II's treatment of minority groups (The Jews)

He was more tolerant, despite a history of Russian antisemitism. Jews were allowed to work in the government and as professors in universities. They were allowed to live outside of Russian towns in allocated areas

The Period of Reaction (Alexander II): Reason

In 1866 an assassin attempted to assassinate Alexander II. When this failed, Alexander II changed his policies against revolution. There was a crackdown on printing presses to limit radical publications. Lithuanian press banned and the use of the ukrainian language in print was prohibited. Expansion of the Third Section (secret police) to monitor and arrest revolutionaries.

The Period of Reaction (Alexander II): Changes in education

Tolstoy was the minister of education and he attempted to reverse the revolutionary tide by discouraging critical thinking. The zemstva's power over education was replaced by the church. A classical curriculum prioritized STEM subjects over subjects encouraging critical thinking. From 1871 on only students from traditional universities could attend university. In 1873 there was lots of censorship on student organizations criticising the government. Many students moved abroad to continues their studies. Teachers deemed to be 'morally and politically corrupt' were dismissed. Education was seen as a means of reinforcing obedience to traditional moral principles rather than offering new opportunities for individual learning and advancement.

The Period of Reaction (Alexander II): The police and the law courts

Shuvalev strengthened the police and rooted out any subversion. He worked with Phalen who used the judicial system to expose and condemn those accused of subversive political activity. Speeches of defence lawyers were reported in the press according to Alexander's reforms, proving useful publicity for opponents of tsardom. In 1878 the government ruled that political crimes would be heard in military courts where cases were heard and sentences passed in secret. The progressive reforms faced increasing resistance after an assassination attempt on Alexander II in 1866. This led to a "general reaction" that rolled back some of the changes

The Period of Reaction (Alexander II): The police and the law courts (Trial of 193)

Trial of 193 - a series of trials (form 1877-78) of students accused of treason. They were tried and most of them were acquitted (because they were tried by peers). It revealed the paranoia of the government and the corruption of the courts that so many innocent people could be accused.

Oppositional groups to the Tsardom (Alexander II): Nihilism

Nihilism (the belief that life is meaningless, it rejects traditional values). Inspired the People's Will (an assassin group). Was meet with censorship and arrests.

Oppositional groups to the Tsardom (Alexander II): The populist movement

The populist movement (also called the 'Narodnik movement')
A youth-led initiative to bring peasants into an active position in the political debate. Advocated for peasant uprisings. It was most active in 1861 and a primary cause for Alexander to turn to reactionary policies

Oppositional groups to the Tsardom (Alexander II): Land and Liberty

Undercover revolutionary group founded in 1860: It had the principles of anarchism & collectivism. It was dissolved in 1864 due to a loss of faith in peasant revolutions. In 1876 it was reformed as a populist movement with scattered members. In 1879 it was split into the People's Will and the Black Reparition

Oppositional groups to the Tsardom (Alexander II): The People's Will

The People's Will sought to overthrow the tsar through violent terrorism. In 1881 they assassinated Alexander II but this led to a severe government crackdown and they were ultimately destroyed

The Period of Reaction (Alexander II): 'final reactionary measure'.

In 1879 Alexander II implemented the 'final reactionary measure'. Count Melikov, was appointed head of the Supreme Administrative Commission in 1880. He attempted to separate terrorists from well-meaning reformers. Although he proposed releasing political prisoners, transferring powers of the secret police to the normal police, and relaxing censorship to the Duma in 1881, this did not happen.

The Period of Reaction (Alexander II): Assassination

Alexander II was assassinated on the 13th of March, 1881 by four members of the People's Will group. According to Harry Hearder, 'his reign which had started in high hope ended futile tragedy.' Alexander III's reaction to his father's death led to an increase of people sent to Siberia as he adopted a policy of autocratic repression that overturned most of his father's reforms.

Alexander III's political ideals

Alexander's political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality, language, religion and form of administration. He strongly supported Russification, enforcing Russian language and culture while suppressing regional and minority identities.

Re-establishment of noble interests in local governance (Alexander III)

Land captains were nobles ruling over the country chosen by the minister of internal affairs. They had the power to enforce government order and override local elections. According to Charques, the creation of land captains caused significant resentment among peasents. Alexander III also adjusted zemstva membership to meet his interests.

In 1890, the zemstvas lost right to appoint magistrate. In 1892 there were higher property qualifications to vote in the duma, and as a result, the zemstvas and dumas shifted towards social rather than political work

Judicial changes (Alexander III)

In 1885 the Minister of Justice could dismiss judge decisions he didn't like, intermingling the branches of government. In 1887, 'closed court sessions' with no media presence were made legal, allowing the state to pass unfair verdicts
People had to have more property and higher qualifications to serve on the jury - re-establishing the nobility's influence
In 1889 the ministry of justice assumed control of the appointment of town judges, but in rural areas, the land captains acted as judges.

Education, orthodoxy, and intellectual life (Alexander III): Education

Delyanov became the new minister of education. In 1884 universities lost their independence the government chose teachers based on their 'religious, moral and patriotic orientation', and only the upper class became eligible for education. In 1887 fees were raised for universities so only the wealthy could afford them. Delyanov declared ordered schools to reject 'the children of coachmen, domestic servants, cooks, washerwomen, small shopkeepers and other similar persons.. Whose children should not be taken out of the social environment to which they belong'

Education, orthodoxy, and intellectual life (Alexander III): Orthodoxy, and intellectual life

Although the number of elementary schools increased, they were put under the church's control. Lessons reinforced humility and obedience with religious indoctrination (e.g. students were taught Russia was the 'holy land' chosen by God to save the world). In the eyes of the church, the main problem was the battle against secularism. In 1883, Orthodox priests were made official government members, making the church part of the government.. All books were censored by priests who judged 'moral' crimes. Other religions were tolerated to some extent but were not allowed to convert orthodox christians or wear traditional dress

In 1882 Tolstoy was put in charge of a censorship committee which prevented banned authors from publishing. The education budget was 1/10 of the military budget and by 1887 there was 21% literacy.

Repression & the police (Alexander III)

In August 1881, the Statute on Measures for the Preservation of Political Order and Social Tranquility was issued, allowing areas of suspected trouble to become an area of 'extraordinary security' and the police could search any house of suspected trouble. The measure was supposedly temporary but lasted until 1917. People that were 'untrustworthy' had no legal representation, ex-political prisoners were denied employment and the secret police used torture and execution to purge the country of communists.

Russification (Alexander III): Definition

Russification was the process of turning the multinational state into a unified empire with a shared language, sovereignty, and nationality. However, 60% of the population was non-Russian

Russification (Alexander III): Methods of Russification

• Use of the Russian language was enforced in schools in Lithuania, Finland, Poland, and Central Asia.
• The Poland National Bank was closed in 1885
• Persecuting Ukrainian church
• In 1892 the Finnish senate (which regarded Alexander III as the 'Grand Duke') was reorganised
• In 1899, the Finnish constitution was abolished
• There were also harsh repressions of uprisings in Bashkira, Armenia, Tashkent, and Guriya.

However, unlike Alexander III's plan, these methods served to only turn non-Russian peoples, who had previously been loyal, against the Tsarist rule.

Treatment of Jews (Alexander III): Russification and pogroms

Jews suffered particularly because of Russification. Since 1736, they had been largely confined to the 'Pale of the Settlement' in Southwest Russia.

The government encouraged pograms (lynching/attacks on Jews). First pogrom occurred in April 1881, in town of Yelizavetgrad in ukraine many deliberately sparked by Tsar's secret police. Homes were set on fire, shops destroyed and looted, women were raped and many Jews were murdered. By 1882, there were pogroms in Ukraine and Poland.

Treatment of Jews (Alexander III): The May Laws

he 'May Laws' reduced Jewish rights. Additionally they could not vote in local elections. In 1887 the Pale of the Settlement shrunk and Jews had limited education opportunities. In 1889 Jews could not have careers in law or medicine. This discrimination pushed many Jews to immigrate and others to become revolutionaries