APES

What is the core of Earth composed of?

A dense mass of solid nickel, iron, and radioactive elements that release massive amounts of heat.

What defines the mantle in Earth's structure?

A liquid layer of magma surrounding the core, kept liquid by intense heat from the core.

What is the asthenosphere?

The solid, flexible outer layer of the mantle, beneath the lithosphere.

What is the lithosphere?

The thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of the mantle, broken up into tectonic plates.

What characterizes the crust of Earth?

The very outer layer of the lithosphere; Earth's surface.

What happens at divergent plate boundaries?

Plates move away from each other, leading to mid-ocean ridges and seafloor spreading.

What are the features formed at convergent plate boundaries?

Mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, volcanoes, and trenches.

What occurs at transform fault boundaries?

Plates slide past each other in opposite directions, commonly causing earthquakes.

Describe the convection cycle in relation to magma.

Magma heated by Earth's core rises, cools, and sinks back down, driving the movement of tectonic plates.

What is the Ring of Fire?

A pattern of volcanoes surrounding the Pacific plate, indicating sites of seismic activity.

What are hotspots in geology?

Areas of especially hot magma rising up to the lithosphere, such as Iceland and Hawaii.

What is soil?

A complex mixture of geological (rock) and organic (living) components.

What are the main components of soil?

Sand, silt, clay (geological components) and humus (organic component).

What is the O-horizon of soil?

Layer of organic matter on top of soil, providing nutrients and limiting water loss.

What defines the A-horizon in soil structure?

Topsoil; contains humus and minerals, where most biological activity occurs.

What is the significance of the B-horizon?

Subsoil; lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals with little organic matter.

Describe the C-horizon in relation to soil.

The least weathered soil closest to the parent material, sometimes called bedrock.

What leads to loss of topsoil?

Tilling and loss of vegetation disrupt the soil, making it more prone to erosion.

What is nutrient depletion in soil?

When repeated cropping removes key nutrients (N, P, K) from the soil.

How does soil compaction impact growth?

It reduces soil's ability to hold moisture and support plant growth.

What is soil texture?

The percentage of sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample; always adds up to 100%.

What is porosity?

The amount of pore space in a soil; more sand means more porous.

How does water-holding capacity relate to soil?

More porous soils generally hold less water due to high permeability.

What qualities make loam ideal for plant growth?

It balances porosity/drainage with water-holding capacity.

What gases make up Earth's atmosphere?

Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%), Water Vapor (0-4%), Carbon Dioxide (0.04%).

What role does ozone (O₃) play in the stratosphere?

It absorbs UV-B & UV-C radiation, protecting life on Earth.

What occurs in the troposphere?

Weather occurs here; it is the densest layer of Earth's atmosphere.

What defines the exosphere?

The outermost layer where the atmosphere merges with outer space.

What is the Coriolis effect?

The deflection of objects in the atmosphere due to the Earth's rotation.

How do latitude and solar radiation relate to climate?

Higher latitudes receive less solar radiation, resulting in cooler temperatures.

What is the rain shadow effect?

It occurs when moist air rises over mountains, cools, and releases precipitation on the windward side, creating arid conditions on the leeward side.

What is El Niño?

A pattern of warm ocean water in the Pacific causing changes in weather patterns, often resulting in wetter conditions in South America.

What is La Niña?

A climate pattern characterized by cooler ocean temperatures in the Pacific, leading to drier conditions in South America.

What are the three main types of rocks?

Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

What is the rock cycle?

The continuous process of rocks changing from one type to another through physical and chemical processes.

What is high-grade ore?

Ore with a high concentration of the desired mineral, making extraction more profitable.

What are reserves in relation to mineral resources?

Identified resources that can be profitably extracted at current prices.

What is surface mining?

Mining that takes place on the surface of the Earth.

What are the environmental impacts of subsurface mining?

It can lead to significant land degradation and pollution of surrounding areas.

What defines mineral conservation?

Reducing the use and waste of mineral resources.

How does nanotechnology contribute to sustainable practices?

It allows for the manipulation of atoms and molecules to create new materials, potentially reducing waste.

What is the role of decomposers in soil?

They break down dead organic matter and recycle nutrients back into the soil.

What are the impacts of climate on soil formation?

Warmer temperatures and more precipitation accelerate weathering and soil formation.

How does parent material affect soil?

It influences soil pH and nutrient content.

What is the significance of biological weathering?

It occurs when roots of trees crack rocks, contributing to soil formation.

What defines sedimentary rocks?

Rocks formed from compressed sediments.

What is smelting?

A process used to extract metals from their ores by heating them to a high temperature.

Describe the relationship between porosity and permeability.

Higher porosity often means higher permeability; however, more porous soils generally hold less water.

What are the primary components of a watershed?

Vegetation, soil composition, and slope influence drainage and runoff patterns.

How do human activities impact watersheds?

Activities like agriculture and urbanization can pollute water and alter natural drainage.

What is the main cause of nutrient pollution in watersheds?

Sources include sewage treatment plants, animal waste, and synthetic fertilizers.

What is the role of albedo in climate?

Albedo affects how much solar energy is absorbed or reflected by surfaces, influencing local temperatures.

What is a tsunami?

A series of waves caused by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.

What is the material revolution regarding mineral resources?

The development of new materials as substitutes for traditional metals.

What does soil erosion lead to?

Loss of topsoil, which can severely impact land productivity.

How does soil structure affect agricultural practices?

Soil structure determines drainage, nutrient retention, and root penetration, crucial for crop growth.

What are manganese nodules?

Mineral deposits found on the ocean floor, potentially useful for various industrial processes.

Describe the effect of compaction on soil quality.

Compacted soil loses its ability to retain moisture and nutrients, hindering plant growth.

What are the characteristics of metamorphic rocks?

Rocks formed by transformation through heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.

Define the troposphere's temperature profile.

The temperature decreases with altitude due to distance from the heating surface of the Earth.

How do phytoplankton contribute to nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystems?

They utilize nutrients from runoff, supporting marine food webs and impacting water quality.

What processes constitute weathering?

Physical, chemical, and biological processes breaking down rocks and minerals.

How does ocean acidification affect marine life?

It can harm organisms with calcium carbonate shells, disrupting marine ecosystems.

What is a high-grade mineral deposit?

A mineral deposit that contains a high concentration of a specific mineral, making it economically viable to extract.

How can an understanding of geology aid in resource management?

Knowledge of geological processes informs sustainable extraction and utilization of mineral resources.

What is a hydrothermal vent?

An underwater hot spring that can host unique ecosystems and harbor valuable mineral deposits.

How does Earth's tilt contribute to seasonal changes?

Earth's tilt modifies the angle of sunlight received; as it orbits the sun, this tilt results in seasonal variations.

What is the main function of soil in ecosystems?

Soil provides support for plant growth, regulates water, and acts as a habitat for numerous organisms.

What is the environmental impact of mining?

Mining can lead to habitat destruction, water pollution, and soil degradation.

Define the process of upwelling.

Upwelling occurs when winds push surface water away from land, allowing nutrient-rich deeper water to rise.

How does sediment pollution affect aquatic habitats?

Sediment can increase water turbidity, reducing light penetration and harming aquatic plants.

Describe the importance of the ozone layer.

It protects life on Earth by absorbing damaging ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

What human activities contribute to climate change?

Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes increase greenhouse gas emissions.

How does temperature inversely affect altitude in the troposphere?

As altitude increases, temperature decreases due to less heat retention from the Earth's surface.

What influences the chemical weathering of rocks?

Factors include temperature, moisture, and the presence of acids.

What is the role of Earth’s atmosphere in climate regulation?

The atmosphere traps heat and regulates temperature, affecting global climates.

What types of organisms are commonly found in soil?

Bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and various insects that contribute to nutrient cycling.

Define eutrophication.

An over-enrichment of nutrients in water bodies, leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion.

How does soil pH affect nutrient availability?

Soil pH influences nutrient solubility; extreme pH levels can hinder plants' ability to access nutrients.

What is a sedimentary rock?

Rock formed from the accumulation and cementation of sediments.

What are igneous rocks?

Rocks formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

What are the two main types of igneous rocks?

Intrusive (plutonic) rocks, which form from magma that cools slowly underground, and extrusive (volcanic) rocks, which form from lava that cools quickly on the surface.

Give an example of an intrusive igneous rock.

Granite is a common example of an intrusive igneous rock.

Give an example of an extrusive igneous rock.

Basalt is a common example of an extrusive igneous rock.

What is meant by the term 'texture' in igneous rocks?

Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the crystals within the rock.

What is a characteristic feature of igneous rock texture?

Igneous rocks can have aphanitic texture (fine-grained) if they cool rapidly, or phaneritic texture (coarse-grained) if they cool slowly.

How do volcanic eruptions relate to igneous rocks?

Volcanic eruptions produce extrusive igneous rocks, as molten rock reaches the surface and solidifies.

What process leads to the formation of igneous rocks?

Igneous rocks form through the cooling and solidification of molten rock material, either above or below the Earth's surface.

What role do igneous rocks play in the rock cycle?

Igneous rocks are one of the three main rock types in the rock cycle, contributing to the formation of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks through weathering and metamorphism.