Biopsychology Final Exam

Biopsychology

scientific study of the biological foundations of behavior, emotions, and mental processes/

- integrates neuroscience, psychology, and biology.

neuroception

body's unconscious and reflexive evolution of safety or danger in the environment and internal states.

microglia (Chapter 1)

removes waste material, viruses, and fungi from the brain. Also removes dead, dying, or damaged neurons.

Nourishment of vertebrate neurons (Chapter 1)

these neurons depend almost entirely on glucose. this is a sugar that's one of the few that can pass through the blood brain barrier. They also need a steady supply of oxygen or they'll die

What happens with prolonged thiamine deficiency? (Chapter 1)

prolonged thiamine deficiency leads to death of neurons, as seen in Korsakoff's syndrome. severe memory impairment is caused by this

What does the vagus nerve do? (Chapter 1)

Bacteria in your gut can influence your brain by causing inflammation. Bacteria influence brain activity by influencing the vagus nerve, which connects to the brain.

Action potential (Chapter 1)

it's all-or-nothing. any depolarization that reaches or passes the threshold produces an action potential.

Myelin sheath (Chapter 1)

an insulating material composed of fats and proteins. helps with rapid conduction of action potentials.

reuptake (Chapter 1)

neurons reabsorb neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, they're either taken up through this or destroyed through enzymatic degradation

synapse (Chapter 1)

the space between cells where a chemical signal is sent from one neuron to another.

glial cells (Chapter 1)

supports and protects neurons. types include astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes.

Astrocytes

a type of glial cell that help form the blood brain barrier

glutamate (chapter 2)

an excitatory neurotransmitter, or response. responsible for excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) in the central nervous system. graded depolarization

GABA (chapter 2)

an inhibitory neurotransmitter, slowly halts firing by creating neuronal hyper polarization. it's involved in inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).

temporal summation (chapter 2)

graded potentials, this is where repeated stimuli can have a cumulative effect and can produce a nerve impulse when a single stimuli is too weak.

spatial summation (chapter 2)

graded potentials, builds on excitatory or inhibitory stimuli. synaptic input from multiple locations can have a cumulative effect and trigger a nerve impulse.

synthesis of transmitters (chapter 2)

neurons synthesize neurotransmitters and other chemicals from substances provided by diet. Acetylcholine and tryptophan are two main ones.

inotropic effects (chapter 2)

examples that this is involved with are vision and hearing. occurs when a neurotransmitter attaches to receptors and immediately opens ion channels. These occur very quickly and are very short lasting, relies on glutamate or GABA

metabotropic effects (chapter 2)

these are slower than inotropic, and occur when neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and initiate sequence of slower and longer lasting metabolic reactions. these include behaviors like taste, smell, and pain. use many chemicals like dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and sometimes glutamate and GABA

Conditions/substances affecting synaptic health

- Excitotoxicity: neurons are damaged by excessive activation of receptors for excitatory neurotransmitters, like glutamate.

- opiates: attach to specific receptors in the brain and relieve pain by binding to the same receptors that neuropeptides attach to to produce endorphins

- LSD: attach to serotonin type 2A receptors snd stimulate them for longer-than-normal durations.

- Cannabinoids: attaches to 2AG receptors on presynaptic neurons or GABA, and makes the cell stop sending glutamate and GABA.

the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus

the pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus and consists of two distinct glands; the anterior and posterior pituitary.

the hypothalamus produces oxytocin and vasopressin

the spinal cord (start of chapter three terms)

part of the central nervous system is found in the spinal column. the central nervous system is the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. contains the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

autonomic nervous system

sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic behaviors of the body, like heart rate or blood pressure. contains the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

sympathetic nervous system

a network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activity. increases heart rate and blood pressure, and is composed of ganglia on the left and right of the spinal cord.

parasympathetic nervous system

facilitates vegetative and nonemergency responses. dominant during our relaxed states, and is composed of long axons extending from the spinal cord and short post-ganglionic fibers that attach to organs

cerebral cortex

the most prominent part of the mammalian brain. consists of cellular layers on the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres. it's joined by two bundles of axons called the corpus colosseum and anterior commissure

prefrontal cortex

responsible for higher functions like abstract thinking and planning. our ability to remember recent events and information. the anterior zone is responsible for making decisions

the limbic system

consists of a number of interlinked structures that form a barrier around brainstem. includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex. associated with motivation emotions like eating, drinking, anxiety, sexual activity, and aggression

the cerebellum

structure located in the hindbrain with many deep folds. helps regulate motor movement, balance, and coordination. important for shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli

hippocampus

a large structure located between the thalamus and cerebral cortex. critical for certain types of memory, especially personal memories (episodic)

medulla and cranial nerves

- medulla is located above the spinal cord, and is like an enlarged extension of the spinal cord. responsible for vital reflexes like breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing.

- the cranial nerves allow the medulla to control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and many. parasympathetic outputs.

thalamus and hypothalamus

structures underneath the cortex

- thalamus: relay station from the sensory organs; main source of input to the cortex

- hypothalamus: small area ventral to the thalamus, it has widespread connections to the rest of the braun. the hypothalamus is associated with motivated behaviors like feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, and sexual behavior. through nerves and release of hormones, the hypothalamus conveys messages to the pituitary gland.

research methods: the main categories of studying the brain. reference chapter three in my notes for more specifics

- examine the effects of brain damage

- examine the effects of stimulating a brain area

- recorded brain activity during behavior

- correlate brain anatomy with behavior

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Look in notes for clinical and research use

non-invasive brain simulation that uses magnetic fields to activate or suppress cortical regions. low frequency inactivates cortical regions. high frequency excites glutamate and cortical areas, enhancing connectivity

Electroencepholograph (EEG)

records electrical activity produced by various brain regions

Magnetoencepholograph (MEG)

similar to EEG but measures faint magnetic fields generated big brain activity instead.

PET scans

radioactive tracer (glucose analog) measures metabolic activity. can also measure neurotransmitter binding.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

modified version of an MRI that uses oxygen consumption--BOLD--signal to provide a moving and detailed picture. safer and less expensive than PET

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

inject dye into the blood and pass x-rays through the head

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

apply a powerful magnetic field to image the brain

There's a table for methods of measuring brain-behavior relationships in my notes on chapter 3, it explains which research method uses which of the above scans

theories on evolutionary development, basic principles (chapter 4)

evolution refers to a change in the frequency of various genes in a population's generation.

- regardless of whether the change is helpful/harmful

Evolution attempts to answer two questions

How did some species evolve? How do species evolve?

theories on evolution include

- brain evolution

- behavior and natural selection

- group and kin selection

Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)

protein that supports the survival, growth, and differentiation of neurons in the brain. synaptic plasticity, learning, memory, and emotional health.

methylation

adds a methyl group, which decreases gene expression and represses transcription factor binding (off switch)

histone acetylation

adds acetyl group, loosens histones interactions with DNA, makes DNA more accessible and increases gene expression (on-switch)

telomeres

repeated region of repetitive DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes. these maintain stability of linear eukaryotic chromosomes during DNA replication (telomerase)

neural darwinism

some theorists refer to the idea of the selection process of new neuronal connections as neural darwinism. most successful axon connections/combos survive while the others fail to sustain active synapses

Development of neurons

1. proliferation

2. migration

3. differentiation

4. myelination

5. synaptogenesis

New neurons later in life and determinants of neural survival are also in this chapter

synaptogenesis

final stage of neural development--the formation of the synapses between neurons

Blackburn's research on telomeres and stress (what part of brain and what's the big deal)

she found that every time the cell replicated, some of the DNA on the ends gets shortened or worn down.

- telomerase prevents telomeres from aging and dying. telomeres length can be controlled by stress management.

- Those who suffer from chronic stress had decreased telomeres length, which they discovered using a 4 year study. people's life events and response to these can affect telomeres length.

epigenetics and the Dutch hunger study

Food was scarce during the time, and if you were a second or third trimester fetus during the starvation, you learned that the environment was harsh, so your body would program your itself to be stingy and store it. despite this not being a thing anymore, people who had ancestors were more likely to have obesity or metabolic syndrome because their body would store food.

London taxi driver study and neuroplasticity

posterior hippocampus is larger than non-taxi drivers. because they do active planning and navigation throughout their job, their memory of routes gets better decade by decade. this change is neuroplasticity, as they get older and more experience, their hippocampus gets bigger.

neuroplasticity

the brain's lifelong ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself by forming new synaptic connections. strengthens/weakens existing ones, allowing it to learn and recover form injury

epigenetics

a field concerned with changes in gene expression without modification of DNA sequence, these are important to learning and memory

Types of strokes

- ischemia: most common, results from a blood clot or obstruction of an artery. neurons lose their oxygen and glucose supply

- hemorrhage: a less frequent type, results from a ruptured artery. neurons are flooded with excess blood, calcium, oxygen, and other chemicals

Treatment for strokes

- drug called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) breaks up blood clots snd reduces effects of ischemia

- most effective method to minimize damage from strokes is to cool the brain, protects the brain after ischemia by reducing overstimulation, apoptosis, and inflammation

sensation (start of chapter 5)

sensory organs detect stimuli from the environment and convert them into neural signals

perception

organizing, interpreting, and making sense of sensory information.

Visual pathway

light enters the eye through an opening in the center of the iris called the pupil.

includes the iris, retina, cornea, fovea, LGN, and area v1.

iris

iris controls the size of the pupil, reacts to light. bright light constricts and dim light dilates

retina

light wavelengths are focused by the lens and the cornea onto this rear surface of eye, which is lined with visual receptors

optic nerve

axons of ganglion cells join to form the optic nerve that travels to the brain. where the optic nerve leaves is a blind spot.

fovea

our vision's most detailed (has color cones). central portion of retina and allows for accurate and detailed vision. packed tightly with receptors. almost free of ganglion axons and blood vessels.

cones

most abundant in and around the fovea. essential for color vision and useful in bright light

rods

most abundant in the periphery of the eye and responds to faint light

parvocellular

- mostly located in or near fovea.

- have smaller cell bodies and receptive fields

- highly sensitive to detect color and visual detail

magnocellular neurons

- distributed evenly throughout the retina

- have larger cell bodies and visual fields

- highly sensitive to large overall patterns and moving stimuli

koniocellular

- have small cell bodies

- found throughout the retina

- have several functions, and axons terminate in many places

primary visual cortex

also called v1, it receives info from the lateral geniculate nucleus and is the area responsible for the first stage of visual processing. contains simple, complex, and end-stopped/hypercomplex cells

lateral geniculate nucleus

- selectively relay: receives input from retinal ganglion cells and organizes signals (colors, fine detail, motion) which signals will be passed to v1.

- refines and filters

- corticothalamic feedback

simple cells

- has fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones

- more light that shines in the excitatory zone, the more the cell responds.

- bar-shaped or edge-shaped receptive fields with vertical and horizontal orientations. outnumbers diagonal ones

complex cells

- located in either v1 or v2.

have large receptive fields that cannot be mapped into a fixed excitatory or inhibitory zone

- responds to a pattern of light in a particular orientation and most strongly to a moving stimulus

end-stopped or hypercomplex cells

similar to complex cells but with a strong inhibitory area at one end of its bar-shaped receptive field. responds to a bar-shaped pattern of light anywhere in its large receptive field provided the bar doesn't extend beyond a certain point

ventral and dorsal streams

secondary visual cortex (area v2) receives info from one area v1, processes info further, then sends it to other areas

ventral stream

refers to the path that goes through the temporal cortex. the "what" path, it's specialized for identifying and recognizing objects.

dorsal stream

refers to the visual path in the prefrontal cortex. the 'how" or "where" pathway. important for visually guided movements

information about shape perception, visual agnosia, and prosopagnosia is on this page.

motion perception

involves a variety of brain areas in all four lobes of the cerebral cortex.

- the middle temporal cortex (MT/v5) responds to stimulus moving in a particular direction

- cells in the dorsal part of the medial superior temporal cortex (most) responds to expansion, rotation, or contraction of a visual stimulus.

*Both receive input from the magnocellular path; color-insensitive

auditory pathway

- outer ear: includes the pinna, the structure of flesh/cartilage attached to each side of head

- middle ear: contains the tympanic membrane which connects to three tiny bones (malleus, incus, and stapes).

- inner ear: contains oval window, cochlea, three fluid filled tunnels, and hair cells (auditory receptors)

auditory cortex

primary auditory cortex (area A1) is the destination for most info from auditory system. located in superior temporal cortex. each hemisphere receives most info from opposite ear. parallels that of the visual cortex. contains "what" and "where" pathways.

semicircular canals

located in the vestibular organ, these are oriented in three planes and lined with hair cells. sensitive to directional tilt of head.

info for sound localization is in chapter 6 notes

chemical/mechanical pathway

taste involves taste receptors. Our perception of a flavor is a combo of smell and taste. taste and smell axons converge onto many of the same cortical cells

taste receptors

modified skin cells, replaced every 10-14 days. have excitable membranes that release neurotransmitters to excite nearby neurons.

- each papillae may contain 10 or more taste buds

- each taste bud contains approximately 50 or more receptors.

types of taste receptors

- sweet, sour, salty, bitter.

mechanisms of taste receptors

saltiness receptor permit sodium ions to cross membrane.

sour receptors detect the presence of acids

sweetness, bitterness, and umami receptors activate a G protein that releases a second messenger in the cell when a molecule binds to a receptor

bitter taste is associated with a wide range of harmful substances

cross-adaptation for taste

refers to reduced response to one stimuli after exposure to another

olfactory receptors

olfactory cells line olfactory epithelium in the rear of nasal passage and responsible for smell.

located on cilia, which extend from cell body into mucous surface of nasal passage.

piriform cortex connections

- amygdala: emotional and motivational aspects of smell

- prefrontal cortex: conscious perception/decision making

- entorhinal cortex: odor-related memories

- thalamus: not required for primary olfaction perception--different from other sensory pathways

somatosensation in the CNS

info from touch receptors in head enter CNS through cranial nerves. info from receptors below head enters spinal cord and travel through 31 spinal nerves to brain. various types of somatosensory info travel through spinal cord to thalamus, which sends impulses to areas of primary somatosensory cortex

merkel's disks

receptors that respond to touch

parcinian corpuscles

detects vibrations or sudden displacements on the skin

blindsight

vision loss due to damage to the primary visual cortex. subconscious visual awareness, the network isn't intact

functional neurological disorder

vision loss without structure damage to the primary visual cortex. disregulated higher order brain networks, but intact network.

Jill Bolte Taylor: whole brain living

- neuroanatomist, emotional and thinking tissue are located in each hemisphere of the brain

- left brain thinking tissue: structured and organized, it categorizes and creates sound and language. also places meaning on top of these

- left brain emotional tissue: steps out of the present moment consciousness and gives us the ability to visualize our past or future, linearity across time

- right brain emotional tissue: how does it feel to be in my body in the present moment?

- right thinking tissue: consciousness of me connected to all that is. an immense sense of gratitude for existing.

Jill Bolte Taylor lost her...

left hemisphere, it was completely shut down. she had the other hemisphere, but the emotions were strong. she recovered after 8 years through determination and the help of family.

Eisenberger's work on emotional pain and the anterior cingulate cortex

investigated emotional aspects of pain. used functional MRI to study brain activation during experiences of social rejection. social rejection was stimulated using cyberball.

found that there was increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). ACC is traditionally linked to the affective component of a physical pain.

these results suggested that social pain shares neural mechanisms w/physical pain. highlighted biological importance of social bonds.