AP HUG LETS GO

Urbanization

- increasing growth and concentration of people in cities

-China has experienced rapid urbanization with millions moving from rural areas to cities like Shanghai

Suburbanization

- movement of people from city centers to surrounding residential areas

-U.S., the post-WWII era saw widespread suburbanization around cities like Chicago

Megacities

-Cities with over 10 million residents
-Tokyo is a megacity with advanced infrastructure and over 37 million people

Metacities

-a large urban area with a population of over 20 million people

-Tokyo with advanced infrastructure and over 37 million people

Periphery Countries

-Less developed countries with weaker economies and less global influence

-Haiti is a periphery country with low industrial output and high poverty

Semiperiphery Countries

-Countries that are industrializing and have traits of both core and periphery

-Brazil is a semiperiphery country with a growing economy but persistent inequality

Core Countries

-Highly developed countries with strong economies and global influence

-United States is a core country with advanced industries and global reach

Urban Sprawl

-uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding regions

-Los Angeles is known for its urban sprawl and car-dependent development

Edge Cities

-New urban centers on the outskirts of older cities with their own business and retail hubs

-Near highways

-Tysons Corner, Virginia is an edge city outside Washington D.C

Exurbs

-Areas beyond the suburbs with low-density housing and a commuting population

-Many workers in Dallas live in exurbs like McKinney and commute to the city

Boomburbs

-Rapidly growing suburban cities with populations over 100,000 that maintain suburban characteristics

-Irvine, California is a boomburb experiencing fast population and economic growth

Decentralization

-redistribution of population and industry from central urban areas to outlying regions

-Companies moving offices from San Francisco to nearby suburbs reflect decentralization

World Cities

-Major global cities that serve as key nodes in the global economic system
-London is a world city with influence in finance, culture, and politics

Global Linkages

-Economic, political, or cultural connections between different parts of the world

-Silicon Valley has global linkages with tech manufacturing hubs in Taiwan and China

Urban Hierarchy

-ranking of cities based on population size, economic power, and influence

-New York City ranks higher than Buffalo in the U.S. urban hierarchy due to its size and global role

Mediate

-To act as a go-between or connector in a process or system

-Airports in Dubai mediate global travel between Asia, Europe, and Africa

Rank-Size Rule

-population of city ranked n will be 1/nth size of the largest city

-second largest will have half as much as largest, third will have 1/3

-In Germany, the second-largest city is roughly half the size of the largest, fitting the rank-size rule

Primate City

-city that has twice the population of the second largest city

-Bangkok is Thailand’s primate city, dominating in population and economy

Central Place Theory

-model explaining the spatial distribution of cities based on services and market areas

-In Southern Germany, towns and villages align with Central Place Theory in hexagonal market areas

Range

-The maximum distance people are willing to travel for a good or service

-People travel farther for a university than for a grocery store, which has a smaller range

Threshold

-The minimum population needed to support a service or business

-A movie theater needs a large enough population nearby to stay profitable

Gravity Model

-model predicting interaction between places based on size and distance

-New York and Los Angeles interact more than New York and Boise due to size and proximity

Burgess Coencentric-Zone Model

-A model that describes urban land use in concentric rings, with the CBD at the center

-Chicago in the early 1900s followed this model with industry near the center and suburbs in outer rings

Hoyt Sector Model

- A model that suggests urban areas develop in sectors or wedges radiating from the CBD

-Transportation corridors in Seattle have shaped sectors of similar land use extending from downtown

Harris & Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model

-A model proposing cities have multiple centers (nodes) around which activities revolve

-Los Angeles fits this model with several distinct economic and cultural centers like Hollywood and Long Beach

Galactic City Model

-A model describing a decentralized, post-industrial city with a central CBD and edge cities connected by highways

-Atlanta reflects this model, with suburban edge cities and a beltway highway system

Bid-Rent Theory

-A theory that land value and demand decrease as distance from the CBD increases

-Downtown office spaces in New York City are more expensive than land in outer boroughs

Latin American City Model

-A model that includes a spine of development leading from the CBD and surrounding zones of squatter settlements

-Cities like Mexico City display this pattern with elite residential areas along a commercial spine

Sub-Saharan African City Model

-A model featuring three CBDs (colonial, traditional, and market) and a mix of formal and informal settlements

-Nairobi reflects this model with distinct zones and a blend of colonial and traditional influences

Southeast Asian City Model

-A model where cities develop around ports, with a lack of a clear CBD and a mix of land uses

-Jakarta shows this model with dispersed business zones around a colonial port

Infilling

- The development of vacant or underused land within existing urban areas

-Philadelphia used infilling to revitalize empty lots into housing and retail space

Urban Sustainability

-Practices that allow cities to meet current needs without compromising future generations

-Copenhagen’s bike infrastructure reduces emissions and supports long-term environmental sustainability

Zoning

-Laws that regulate land use by dividing areas into zones for residential, commercial, or industrial purposes

-Houston lacks formal zoning laws, leading to mixed development types in close proximity

Mixed Land Use

-Urban planning that combines residential, commercial, and recreational spaces in one area

-Portland, Oregon promotes mixed land use to reduce car dependency and encourage vibrant neighborhoods

Walkability

-A measure of how friendly an area is to walking, based on safety, infrastructure, and access to amenities

-Downtown Boston has high walkability due to compact streets and nearby services

Transportation-Oriented Development (TOD)

-Urban development focused around public transit hubs to reduce reliance on cars

-Arlington, Virginia developed dense housing and retail around Metro stations as a TOD strategy

Smart Growth Policies

-Urban planning that promotes sustainable and efficient land use to curb sprawl

-Maryland’s smart growth program limits development on rural land and promotes urban infill

New Urbanism

- A planning movement promoting walkable neighborhoods, mixed-use development, and community interaction

-Seaside, Florida is a model of New Urbanism with pedestrian paths and a compact town center

Greenbelts

-Areas of open land around cities where development is restricted to prevent sprawl

-London's greenbelt policy limits urban growth to preserve farmland and natural areas

De Facto Segregation

-Segregation that occurs due to social, economic, or historical patterns rather than laws.

-Many U.S. cities still show de facto segregation through racially divided neighborhoods

Housing Discrimination

-Unfair treatment of individuals in housing based on race, ethnicity, gender, or other protected traits.

-Black families in mid-20th century America were often denied home loans due to discriminatory practices

Redlining

-A discriminatory practice where banks refused loans to people in certain (often minority) neighborhoods

-Maps created by the Home Owners' Loan Corporation in the 1930s institutionalized redlining in U.S. cities

Blockbusting

- The practice of persuading homeowners to sell at low prices by exploiting racial fears, then reselling at higher prices

-Real estate agents used blockbusting in Chicago to transition neighborhoods and profit from white flight

Environmental Injustice

- The unequal distribution of environmental hazards among disadvantaged communities

-Factories and waste sites are more commonly located near low-income or minority neighborhoods

Disamenity Zones

-Areas lacking in desirable features or services, often with poor infrastructure and high poverty
-slums in Latin American cities are in disamenity zones on dangerous or inaccessible land

Land Tenure

- system of rights and arrangements for owning and using land

-Unclear or informal land tenure in squatter settlements can prevent residents from accessing public services

Urban Renewal

- Government-funded redevelopment of deteriorated urban areas, often displacing low-income residents
-New York’s Lincoln Center was built as part of a major urban renewal project in the 1950s

Gentrification

-process of wealthier individuals moving into and revitalizing a neighborhood, often displacing poorer residents

-Brooklyn, NYC, has seen rapid gentrification with rising rents and changing demographics

Inclusionary Zoning

-Policies requiring a portion of new housing developments to be affordable for low- to moderate-income residents

-Cities like San Francisco use inclusionary zoning to increase affordable housing and reduce segregation

Remediation and Redevelopment of Brownfields

-The process of cleaning and repurposing polluted or abandoned industrial sites
-conversion of old factories into lofts in Detroit is an example of brownfield redevelopment

Density Gradient

-change in population density from the urban center to the outskirts

-In many U.S. cities, the density gradient declines as one moves from downtown to suburbs

Megalopolis

-A chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas forming a large, continuous urban region

-BosWash corridor from Boston to Washington, D.C., is a classic example of a megalopolis

Metropolitan Areas

-A central city and its surrounding suburbs and exurbs linked by economic and social connections

-Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex is a large metropolitan area with interconnected cities

Micropolitan Areas

-urban area centered around a city with 10,000–50,000 people and surrounding communities

-Bozeman, Montana, is a micropolitan area serving as a regional economic and cultural hub

Slow Growth Policies

-Strategies implemented by governments to limit the pace of urban development and prevent sprawl

-Boulder, Colorado, uses slow-growth policies like development caps to protect open space and manage infrastructure demands

Urban Blight

-The process where a city or part of it deteriorates due to neglect, disinvestment, or depopulation

-Detroit experienced urban blight as industries left and homes were abandoned, leading to widespread decay

Mediterranean Climate

-hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters

-olives, grapes, and citrus in regions such as California and the Mediterranean Basin

Tropical Climate

-hot and humid year-round with high rainfall, typically found near the equator

-lush vegetation and crops like bananas, coffee, and rice in regions such as the Amazon Basin and Southeast Asia

Intensive Farming

-uses high labor, capital, or technology on a small area of land to maximize output

-rice paddies in Asia or greenhouse farming in the Netherlands

Market Gardening

-small-scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers sold directly to local markets

-urban areas where perishable goods can be quickly delivered, such as in California or the U.S. East Coast

Planation Agriculture

-large-scale, commercial farming focused on one or two cash crops, often in tropical regions

-Central America or Southeast Asia, producing crops like sugar, coffee, or rubber for export

Miced Crop/Livestock Systems

-combine the growing of crops and raising of animals on the same land

-U.S. Midwest, where farmers grow corn and soybeans to feed livestock like cattle or pigs

Extensive Farming

-uses large areas of land with low labor and capital input, producing lower yields per hectare

-areas like the Great Plains, where wheat or cattle are raised over vast stretches of land

Shifting Cultivation

-a farming system where land is cleared, farmed for a few years, then abandoned for new areas as soil fertility decreases

-tropical regions like the Amazon Basin or Central Africa, where crops like cassava and maize are grown

Nomadic Herding

-involves moving livestock seasonally in search of pasture and water

-Sahel in Africa or Central Asia, where herders raise animals like sheep, goats, and camels

Ranching

-the large-scale raising of livestock, typically for meat, on extensive land areas

-American West, Argentina, and Australia, where cattle or sheep are raised for beef or wool production

Settlement Patterns

-the arrangement of human habitats, including the distribution and layout of communities

-linear settlements along roads or rivers, clustered villages for agricultural communities, or dispersed patterns in areas like the American Midwest for farming

Rural Land-Use Patterns

-refer to how land is utilized in countryside or non-urban areas, including agricultural, residential, and recreational uses

-clustered settlement patterns for farming communities, linear patterns along roads or rivers, and dispersed patterns where farming is more widespread, such as in the U.S. Midwest for grain farming

Rural Settlement Patterns

-physical arrangement of human settlements in rural areas, influenced by factors like agriculture, geography, and cultural practices

-clustered villages for farming communities in Europe, linear settlements along rivers or roads, and dispersed patterns in areas like North America where agricultural land is extensive and spread out

Clustered

-occur when homes and buildings are grouped together in close proximity, often around a central feature

-agricultural villages, like those in Europe or Asia, where farmers live near each other to share resources and labor

Dispersed

-occur when homes and buildings are spread out over a large area, often in rural or agricultural regions

-U.S. Midwest, where large-scale farming results in isolated farmhouses and fewer people living in close proximity

Linear

-occur when buildings and homes are arranged along a straight line, often following a transportation route such as a road, river, or coast

-access to rivers or coastlines, such as villages along roads or rural areas along rivers in places like England or parts of South Asia

Land-Use Patterns

-refer to the ways in which land is utilized by humans for various activities, such as agriculture, housing, industry, and recreation

-residential areas in cities, agricultural zones for crops and livestock, industrial zones for factories, and forests or parks for conservation

Fertile Crescent

-a historically significant region in the Middle East, characterized by its rich, fertile soil and early development of agriculture and civilization

-Sumer and Babylon, and the region where the domestication of crops such as wheat and barley began

Indus River Valley

-an ancient civilization located along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, known for its advanced urban planning and early development of agriculture

-Harappan Civilization flourished here, with cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa demonstrating sophisticated grid layouts, drainage systems, and the use of agriculture with crops like wheat and cotton

Columbian Exchange

-the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, culture, and ideas between the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia following Christopher Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century

-new crops like potatoes and maize to Europe, while diseases like smallpox were brought to the Americas, devastating native populations

First Agricultural Revolution

-Neolithic Revolution, was the transition from nomadic hunting and gathering to settled agricultural societies, occurring around 10,000 years ago

-domestication of plants and animals, such as wheat, barley, and sheep, which led to the development of permanent settlements and the rise of early civilizations

Domestication of Plants and Animals

Enclosure Movement

-the process in 18th and 19th century England where common land was consolidated into private farms, often leading to the displacement of small farmers

-increased agricultural efficiency and production, but also contributed to urban migration as former rural workers sought jobs in growing industrial cities

Second Agricultural Revolution

-a period of agricultural improvement in the 17th to 19th centuries, marked by innovations in farming techniques, tools, and crop rotation

-led to increased food production and efficiency, supporting population growth and urbanization, with key developments like the introduction of the seed drill and crop rotation

Horticulture

-cultivation of plants for food, medicine, and ornamental purposes, typically on a smaller scale than large-scale agriculture

-common in market gardening, where crops like fruits, vegetables, and flowers are grown for local sale, such as in suburban areas or specialized farms in places like the Mediterranean

Green Revolution

-a series of agricultural innovations in the mid-20th century that introduced high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, and advanced irrigation techniques to increase food production globally

-boosted food production in countries like India and Mexico, helping to prevent famines, though it also led to environmental concerns and increased reliance on chemical inputs

High-Yield Seeds

-genetically modified or selectively bred seeds designed to produce more food per plant, often with resistance to pests, diseases, or environmental stress

-seeds were a key component of the Green Revolution, with crops like high-yield rice and wheat significantly increasing food production in countries like India and Mexico

Chemical Fertilizers

-synthetic substances used to enhance soil fertility by providing essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to crops

-used during the Green Revolution to increase agricultural productivity, particularly in developing countries, but also contributing to environmental issues like soil degradation and water pollution

Pesticides

-chemicals used to kill or control pests that threaten crops, livestock, or human health

-used in modern agriculture to protect crops like corn and wheat from insects and diseases, but their overuse has led to concerns about environmental damage, health risks, and the development of pest resistance

Herbicides

-chemicals used to control or kill unwanted plants, commonly known as weeds, that compete with crops for nutrients, light, and space

-used in farming to ensure crops like soybeans and corn grow without competition from weeds, but excessive use can harm soil health and lead to resistance in weed population

Mechanized Farming

-the use of machinery and equipment to perform tasks traditionally done by hand, such as planting, harvesting, and irrigation

-increases efficiency and scale in agriculture, seen in large-scale operations like wheat farming in the U.S. Midwest or rice harvesting in China, reducing labor costs and increasing crop yields

Agribusiness

-refers to the industries involved in the production, processing, and distribution of agricultural products, including farming, food processing, and retail

-Large corporations like Cargill, controlling everything from seed production to the sale of processed food, which shapes global food markets and agricultural practices

Cross Breeding of Plants

-plants is the process of mating two different plant varieties or species to produce offspring with desirable traits from both parent plants

-used to develop crops like disease-resistant wheat or high-yield corn, improving agricultural productivity and resilience to environmental challenges

Monocropping

-the agricultural practice of growing a single crop species over a large area, often year after year

-large-scale commercial farming, such as corn or soybean production in the U.S., but can lead to soil depletion, pest infestations, and reduced biodiversity

Bid-Rent Theory

-explains how the price and demand for land vary with distance from the city center, with businesses and residents willing to pay more for land closer to the center

Spatial Organization

-refers to the arrangement and distribution of different physical, cultural, or economic features across a geographic space

-In cities, spatial organization can refer to the layout of residential, commercial, and industrial zones, like the CBD (Central Business District) in urban areas, with residential neighborhoods organized around it

Large-Scale Commercial Agriculture

-the industrialized farming of crops or livestock over extensive areas, primarily for sale in national or international markets

-soybean farming in Brazil or corn production in the U.S. Corn Belt, where mechanization and agribusiness dominate to maximize profit and efficiency

Commodity Chain

-the sequence of steps involved in the production and distribution of a product, from raw materials to the final consumer

-coffee commodity chain includes growing beans in Ethiopia, roasting in Europe, packaging, and selling in global coffee shops like Starbucks

Economies of Scale

-the cost advantages that businesses experience as production increases, resulting in lower per-unit costs

-Large farms using bulk machinery and inputs can produce crops like corn or wheat more cheaply than smaller farms, increasing profitability through mass production

Carrying Capacity

-the maximum number of people an environment can sustain and support

Aquaculture

-the controlled cultivation of aquatic organisms like fish, crustaceans, and seaweed for food and commercial use

-China use aquaculture to farm tilapia and shrimp to meet rising global seafood demand while reducing pressure on wild fish populations

Cereal Grain

-edible seeds from grasses cultivated for food, such as wheat, rice, corn, barley, and oats

-Wheat is a major cereal grain grown in the U.S. and used to produce staples like bread and pasta, forming a key part of global diets

Commercial Agriculture

-the large-scale production of crops and livestock intended primarily for sale rather than for the farmer's own use

-Corn farming in the U.S. and coffee plantations in Brazil are examples where crops are grown for profit and sold in national or international markets

Subsistence Agriculture

-a farming system where crops and livestock are grown primarily to meet the needs of the farmer's family, with little surplus for trade or sale

-in rural parts of Africa or Southeast Asia, farmers grow crops like rice, maize, or cassava mainly to feed themselves and their communities, with limited surplus for the market