Memory & Perception

gestalt

an organized whole; gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

proximity

the principle that things physically close together are perceived as related

closure

the mind completes incomplete visual patterns (like seeing a circle from disconnected dots) to form a whole

similarity

our brain groups visual elements that share similar characteristics (like color, shape, size, or texture) into unified wholes, perceiving them as related patterns rather than separate items, helping us quickly organize and understand complex scenes

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

relative clarity

a crucial monocular depth cue where the brain perceives objects as farther away if they appear hazy, blurry, or less detailed, compared to objects that are sharp and clear

relative size

a depth cue where we perceive objects as farther away if they are similar in actual size but appear smaller

texture gradient

shows how our brain perceives distance: coarse, distinct textures mean closeness, while fine, less detailed textures signal greater distance, helping form a complete picture from fragmented visual input like cobblestones or a stadium crowd

linear perspective

a monocular depth cue where parallel lines (like roads, ceiling edges) appear to converge at a vanishing point on the horizon, creating an illusion of distance on a flat surface

interposition

a key monocular depth cue where one object partially blocking another tells our brain the blocking object is closer and the blocked object is farther away

stroboscopic motion

the illusion of continuous motion created by presenting a rapid sequence of static images or flashes, making discrete stimuli appear to blend into fluid movement, like in movies or animation, where the brain fills in the gaps between frames

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

brightness constancy

our brain's ability to perceive an object's inherent lightness (e.g., white paper is white) as stable, despite changes in illumination, by comparing its luminance to surrounding objects, creating a coherent "whole" perception rather than just raw light data

shape constancy

perceiving the form of familiar objects as constant even while our retinas receive changing images of them due to visual cortex neurons that rapidly learn to associate different views of an object

size constancy

perceiving objects as having a constant size, even while our distance from them varies

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

encoding

"get information into our brain"; the processing of information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning

storage

"retain that information"; the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

"get the information back out"; the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

sensory memory

fleeting, to-be-remembered; the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system; two types are echoic and iconic

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten; capacity of 7+-2 items

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences; three types are episodic, semantic, and procedural

working memory

used to link information being currently processed with previously stored information; a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding of explicit memory that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memory

memories from automatic processing; retention independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mneumonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

peg-word system

where one memorizes a jingle "one is a bun, two is a shoe…" so you can picture items with these words and produce a mental image to remember

hierarchies

chunking things into hierarchies composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts, helping us retrieve information efficiently

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice (over time) to yield better long-term retention and recall than is achieved through massed study or practice (cramming, which is good for short-term learning, but those who learn quickly forget quickly)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words (or sometimes its sound at a more intermediate level) (like the boxes thing and remembering "does it rhyme with this" vs. "does it fit in this sentence", which is deeper)

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

we remember much more when something is meaningful to us; learning something meaningful requires one tenth the effort of something non meaningful

reference effect

we have better recall for things and info we can meaningfully relate to ourselves (especially common in individualistic Western cultures); information deemed "relevant to me" is processed more deeply and remains more accessible

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (9/11, Hurricane Sandy, etc.)

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

retrieval cues

like a spider web, we associate something (like the name of a person in our class) with other bits of our surroundings, mood, seating position, etc.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory ("wakening of associations")

context-dependent memory

putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval (like recalling more things where you are asked to recall them in the same place you learned/heard them)

state-dependent memory

what we learn in one state (like drunk or sober), may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

antereograde amnesia

the inability to form new long-term memories after a specific point in time (often due to brain damage, like to the hippocampus), while memories from before the incident remain intact

retrograde amnesia

the loss of memories for events that happened before a traumatic brain injury or disease, meaning you can't recall your past, but can form new memories

encoding failure

when information never makes it into long-term memory because it wasn't processed deeply enough from short-term memory, often due to a lack of attention, focus, or shallow processing (like just skimming) during the initial learning phase

forgetting curve

shows memory retention rapidly declines after learning, then slows, illustrating how quickly we lose info without review, but what remains stabilizes

retrieval failure

forgetting because you can't access stored long-term memories, even though they're there, often due to a lack of appropriate retrieval cues (triggers) or interference

inadequate retrieval (tip of the tongue phenomenon)

a type of retrieval failure where you know information is stored in your memory but temporarily can't access it, feeling it's just out of reach

proactive interference

when old, previously learned information disrupts your ability to learn or recall new information

retroactive interference

a memory phenomenon where newly learned information disrupts or impairs the recall of older, previously learned information, essentially making it harder to remember what came first

repressed memory

the psychoanalytic concept where the mind unconsciously blocks traumatic or highly stressful memories from conscious recall as a defense mechanism, protecting the individual from emotional pain

misinformation effect

when a person's memory of an event becomes less accurate due to incorporating misleading information (post-event details, leading questions) presented after the event, creating false memories or distorting details (car hit vs. smash)

imagination inflation

a memory distortion where repeatedly imagining an event that never happened increases a person's confidence that the event actually occurred

source amnesia

when you remember a fact or event but forget where you learned it, attributing it to the wrong source

method of loci

using location to remember objects and where they are

memory consolidation

the crucial process where fragile, short-term memories are transformed and stabilized into durable long-term memories, involving strengthening neural connections (synaptic plasticity) and often occurring during sleep, making information more resistant to forgetting and interference

long term potentiation

the persistent strengthening of synapses (connections between neurons) due to frequent, simultaneous activity, forming the biological basis for learning and memory

primacy effect

the tendency to better recall items, facts, or people presented at the beginning of a list or sequence

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

prospective memory

the crucial ability to remember to perform future intentions or actions, like taking medicine at night or delivering a message

episodic memory

a type of explicit (declarative) long-term memory for specific, personal experiences and events, tied to a particular time and place

semantic memory

a type of declarative long-term memory that stores general world knowledge, facts, concepts, and word meanings, independent of personal experience

procedural memory

a type of long-term implicit memory that stores unconscious knowledge of how to perform skills and actions

elaborate rehearsal

a deep encoding strategy that strengthens long-term memory by connecting new information to existing knowledge, adding meaning, and creating associations

semantic encoding

the deep processing of information by focusing on its meaning and relating it to existing knowledge

phonemic encoding

a level of memory processing that focuses on the sound or pronunciation of words, placing it between shallow structural encoding (appearance) and deep semantic encoding (meaning)

structural encoding

a shallow level of processing where you focus on a word's physical characteristics (like its font, color, or whether it's in uppercase) rather than its meaning or sound

metacognition

thinking about thinking - the awareness, understanding, and control of one's own cognitive processes, crucial for learning and problem-solving by monitoring understanding and adjusting strategies

central executive

the control center of Baddeley's Working Memory Model, managing attention, coordinating sub-systems (Phonological Loop for sound, Visuospatial Sketchpad for visuals), and integrating information with Long-Term Memory for tasks like problem-solving and decision-making, essentially acting as your mental "manager" for immediate cognitive tasks

phonological loop

a key part of working memory, responsible for temporarily holding and processing auditory and verbal information

visuospatial sketchpad

a component of Baddeley's Working Memory Model that temporarily stores and manipulates visual (what things look like) and spatial (where things are located) information

multi-store model

a theory explaining memory as three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM), with information flowing sequentially, requiring attention to move from sensory to STM, and rehearsal to transfer to LTM