Unit 3

Stability and Change

Debate over which traits persist or alter over life.

Nature vs. Nurture

Discussion of genetic vs. environmental influences.

Continuous Stages of Development

View that development is a gradual, cumulative process.

Discontinuous Stages of Development

View that development occurs in distinct steps.

Cross-Sectional Research

Comparing different age groups at one time.

Longitudinal Research

Studying the same group over time.

Teratogens

Environmental agents causing prenatal damage.

Maternal Illnesses

Health conditions in the mother affecting fetal development.

Genetic Mutations

Changes in DNA that can affect development.

Gross Motor Development

Progression of large muscle movements.

Rooting

Infant reflex turning head toward cheek touch.

Visual Cliff

Laboratory device testing depth perception in infants.

Critical Periods

Optimal times for certain environmental exposures.

Imprinting

Rapid, innate form of learning early in life.

Habituation

Decrease in response after repeated stimulation.

Maturation

Biological growth processes enabling changes in behavior.

Adolescence

Transition period from childhood to adulthood.

Puberty

Onset of sexual maturity and capability to reproduce.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Body structures directly related to reproduction.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical changes during puberty not directly tied to reproduction.

Menarche

First menstrual period in females.

Spermarche

First ejaculation in males.

Menopause

Cessation of menstrual cycles in adult women.

Sex

Biological status as male or female.

Gender

Social and cultural roles associated with being male or female.

Jean Piaget

Psychologist known for theory of cognitive development.

Schema

Mental framework for organizing experiences.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas to fit new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget’s stage of birth to 2 years; experiencing world through senses and actions.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget’s stage of 2–7 years; symbolic thinking but egocentric.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

Reversibility

Understanding that objects can be changed and returned to original form.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing a situation from another’s perspective.

Theory of Mind

Ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s stage of 7–11 years; logical thinking about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget’s stage from ~12 years; abstract and moral reasoning.

Lev Vygotsky

Psychologist emphasizing social interaction in cognitive development.

Scaffold

Supportive framework enabling children to level up skills.

Zone of Proximal Development

Gap between what a learner can do alone and with help.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.

Dementia

Decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life.

Phonemes

Smallest speech units distinguishing sounds.

Morphemes

Smallest meaning-bearing units of language.

Semantics

Rules for deriving meaning from words.

Grammar

System of rules governing language use.

Syntax

Rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

Cooing

Early vowel-like sounds infants make.

Babbling

Repetitive consonant–vowel combinations by infants.

One-Word Stage

Stage where child speaks mostly single words.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage with two-word sentences without function words.

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules too broadly.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s model of nested environmental influences.

Microsystem

Immediate environment (family, school).

Mesosystem

Connections among microsystems.

Exosystem

Indirect environmental influences (parent’s workplace).

Macrosystem

Cultural and societal values and laws.

Chronosystem

Environmental changes over the life course.

Attachment

Emotional bond between infant and caregiver.

Authoritarian Parenting

Strict parenting style with high demands and low responsiveness.

Authoritative Parenting

Balanced parenting with high demands and high responsiveness.

Permissive Parenting

Lenient parenting with low demands and high responsiveness.

Secure Attachment

Comfort with caregiver, distressed by separation, joyful reunion.

Insecure Attachment

Anxious or avoidant bond leading to anxiety or indifference.

Avoidant Attachment

Indifference to caregiver’s presence or absence.

Anxious Attachment

Clinginess and anxiety about caregiver’s return.

Disorganized Attachment

Lack of a coherent attachment strategy.

Separation Anxiety

Distress when caregiver departs.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of strangers in infants.

Temperament

Innate behavioral style and characteristic emotional response.

Parallel Play

Children play adjacent to each other without interaction.

Pretend Play

Imaginative play with make-believe scenarios.

Imaginary Audience

Adolescent belief that others are constantly watching.

Personal Fable

Adolescent belief in one’s uniqueness and invulnerability.

Social Clock

Cultural timetable for social events (marriage, career).

Emerging Adulthood

Period from late teens to mid-20s for identity exploration.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson’s first stage: developing basic trust.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson’s stage: developing self-control and independence.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson’s stage: asserting power and control.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson’s stage: mastering skills and comparing to peers.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erikson’s stage: developing personal identity.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson’s stage: forming intimate relationships.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson’s stage: contributing to future generations.

Integrity vs. Despair

Erikson’s stage: reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret.

Adverse Childhood Experiences

Stressful or traumatic events in childhood impacting health.

Identity Achievement

Attaining a sense of self after exploring options.

Identity Foreclosure

Commitment without exploring alternatives.

Identity Moratorium

Exploration without commitment.

Identity Diffusion

Lack of direction or commitment.

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together.

Behavioral Perspective

View that psychology should focus on observable behavior.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by associating two stimuli.

Acquisition

Initial learning phase of conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response

Unlearned, natural reaction to USC.

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response

Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Extinction

Weakening of conditioned response when USC stops following CS.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of extinguished conditioned response after a pause.